Soil Test Research Articles

Estimation of Electrical Conductivity (EC) of Arpa River Based Soil of Bilaspur Chhattisgarh

Abstract: This research explores the investigation and significance of electrical conductivity in the quality of agricultural soil. Soil electrical conductivity is an indirect measurement that is associated with several physical and chemical characteristics of soils. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil is directly correlated with the concentration of nutrients and inversely correlated with the soil depth. The soil electrical conductivity (EC) values are indicative of the salinity level in the soil. greater EC values correspond to greater salt concentrations in the soil, whereas lower EC values indicate lower salt concentrations. A total of six soil samples were collected from various points along the Arpa River and sent to the soil test laboratory for examination. All samples were analysed using conventional techniques. For this investigation, one of the crucial soil parameters that was taken into consideration is electrical conductivity (EC). The objective of this study is to assess agricultural land using electrical conductivity. The measured electrical conductivity ranges from 0.4 to 0.7 dS/m. The anticipated value is between 0 and 2 decisiemens per metre (dS/m). All soil samples exhibit a standard level of electrical conductivity. Soil electrical conductivity (EC) measurements and total dissolved solids (TDS) may be used to determine the necessary quantity of NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) fertilisers

Precision Nutrient Management Amid Climate Change Challenges: A Review

Increasing food demand and climate change present significant challenges to sustainable food production systems and environmental health. Nitrogen, crucial for plant metabolism and growth, also poses risks such as water pollution through nitrate leaching and the emission of nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O), a potent greenhouse gas contributing to global warming. Despite ongoing efforts to reduce nitrogen fertilizer application, inefficient use persists. Precision agriculture emphasizes optimizing nitrogen application to mitigate climate change and enhance productivity, sustainability, profitability, and climate resilience. While soil testing has historically improved grain production, focusing on crop nutrient demands rather than soil nutrient levels is gaining traction. This approach synchronizes nutrient supply with plant needs more effectively, ensuring nutrients are applied when and where they are most beneficial. Implementing precision nutrient management enhances efficiency, maintains or increases yields, and minimizes nutrient runoff, safeguarding water supplies. This strategy adheres to the principles of the "4 Rs" – Right rate, Right source, Right application method, and Right timing – to deliver nutrients effectively. Advances in technologies like optical sensors and leaf color charts enable real-time nitrogen application adjustments during the growing season, supporting cost-effective and farmer-friendly practices. While developed countries lead in adopting precision nutrient management for nitrogen and other nutrients, developing nations are increasingly exploring similar strategies. Effective policies and programs are essential to address nitrogen fertilizer use and mitigate its impact on climate change in agriculture.

Soybean planting date affects the relationships between soil test values and grain yield

Soybean planting date affects the relationships between soil test values and grain yield

Circularity of potassium in a grassland-based dairy farm on a clay loam soil

A proportion of potassium (K) exits grassland-based dairy farms in tradeable products. Potassium imports are typically needed to offset depletion of soil reserves. The objectives of this study were to (i) quantify K entering and exiting a grassland-based dairy farm including K lost to water, (ii) to relate the balance between K entering and existing the farm to soil K fertility status in order to (iii) design a better K fertilisation strategy for grassland under temperate climatic conditions. The quantities of K entering and exiting a grassland-based dairy farm (Solohead Research Farm; 52⁰51’N, 08⁰21’W) were determined each year between 2005 and 2022. Potassium losses to groundwater were measured during the winters of 2020/21, 2021/22 and 2022/23. Averaged over 18 years, K entering (kg ha−1 ± standard error) was 82 ± 11 and exiting was 41 ± 4. The annual average farm K balance was 41 ± 12 kg ha−1 and ranged between −36 and 136 kg ha−1. Annual K loss to groundwater (mean ± SE kg ha−1) ranged between 6.9 ± 6.13 and 59 ± 7.4. Annual average soil test K (STK; following extraction using Morgan's solution (Na acetate + acetic acid, pH 4.8)) concentrations in paddocks across the farm ranged from 85 to 253 mg L−1. The yearly change in average STK concentrations correlated with annual farm K balance in the preceding year (R2=0.59; P<0.001). Annual farm-scale K budgets were useful in quantifying K flows in products and losses. Potassium leaching to groundwater represented the majority (55 %) of K exiting the farm; exceeding export of K in milk and other products. Maintaining overall farm STK status required annual fertiliser K inputs of 22.5 kg ha−1 between 2016 and 2022. This study elucidates the challenges in managing soil K fertility on grassland based dairy farms.

Development of the triaxial equipment: a state of art

Triaxial shear testing is one of the most crucial investigations in geotechnical laboratories. It is essential for designing specific projects and understanding soil behavior in geotechnical engineering. Since Casagrande developed the modern shear apparatus at Harvard University, it has been refined to provide a more accurate characterization of shear strength behavior. This research paper aims to offer a concise overview of triaxial equipment development, focusing on apparatus that is easy to set up, prepare, and operate reliably, while remaining cost-effective. The primary objective is to contribute to the accurate determination of suitable techniques and devices that meet specific testing objectives. We review the theoretical background of both the triaxial apparatus and the direct shear box and illustrate the basic working principles of various volume change measurement techniques using triaxial devices. We also present different operational principles employed in designing volume change devices for soil testing. Our analysis reveals that some of these devices require complex operational techniques and equipment, making them challenging to use for repetitive testing. Consequently, we conclude that the ideal volume change device for soil mechanics testing should prioritize robustness and ease of operation.

Biomass Accumulation, Soil Fertility and Energy Use in Seed Crop Systems of Velvet Bean (Mucuna Pruriens L.)

ABSTRACT Seed crop production systems of velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens L.) were assessed in two field studies for ecosystem services. At flowering stage, long duration genotype Arka Shubra was significantly superior in biomass accumulation (14.61 t ha−1), while 100% recommended NPK + 15 t FYM ha−1 registered significantly higher biomass production (11.74 t ha−1). Biomass availability at harvest was higher in long duration genotypes (7.48–7.75 t ha−1) and the average biomass availability of 6.45 t ha−1 at harvest gives scope for including velvet bean as component crop in cropping systems/fallows. The average soil carbon stocks were estimated at 22.8 t ha−1 at the end of 2 yrs and 12.4 t ha−1 at the end of one crop season. Soil nutrient availability was optimum except for soil test P in pre-, standing and post crop growth periods. Highly significant relations (R 2 = 0.949) were observed between nodule number and available N at harvest. The N availability was more in long duration genotypes (209–215 kg N ha−1) over pre-experimental status. Nutrient addition improved the available N status by 40–185 kg ha−1 over pre-experimental status and control. The nutrient uptake was 4–10% higher in Arka Shubra over other long duration genotypes and 100–200% higher over medium/short duration genotypes at flowering. The recyclable biomass and uptake of NPK are more in long duration genotypes implying huge nutrient recycling potential of the system. Overall, seed crop systems of velvet bean are efficient in resource use and energy use (>2.5 EUE) and ideal components for sustainable land management.

Inductive cum targeted yield model-based integrated fertilizer prescription for sweet corn (Zea mays L. Saccharata) on Alfisols of Southern India.

Striking the right nutrient balance is essential for sustainable farming and ecosystem health. In this regard, field experiments were conducted in three phases viz., fertility gradient experiment, main experiment and validation experiment through a soil test crop response approach to develop and validate fertilizer prescription equations for sweet corn in comparison with general recommended dose and soil fertility rating approach. The soil data, fresh cob yield, and NPK uptake were used for establishing four important basic parameters, viz., nutrient requirement (kg t-1), contribution of nutrients from fertilizers, soil, and organic manure. The results revealed that nutrients required to produce one tonne of fresh cob yield (NR) were 5.85 kg, 0.87 kg and 4.31kg for N, P and K, respectively under the STCR NPK alone approach and 6.07 kg, 0.92 kg and 4.33 kg for N, P and K, respectively under STCR NPK+FYM approach. In the validation experiment, STCR NPK+FYM approach for the targeted yield of 25 t ha-1 recorded higher fresh cob yield (23.38 t ha-1) and dry stover yield (35.07 t ha-1) which were significantly higher compared to general recommended dose and soil fertility rating approach. The developed STCR equations for the aforesaid crop are valid as the percent deviation of cob yield from the targeted yield was within ±10%. Similarly, highest nutrient use efficiency was achieved with the STCR approach, specifically when targeting a lower yield through an NPK+FYM mode. Thus, implementation of the STCR approach of fertilizer prescription, with or without FYM, at targeted yields of 25 and 22 t ha-1, not only surpassed the effects of the other fertilizer recommendation approach in terms of cob yields, but also increased NPK uptake, improved nutrient use efficiency and greater economic returns.

Applicability of calibrated diffuse reflectance spectroscopy models across spatial and temporal boundaries

Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) is an emerging soil testing approach. Although several studies have validated the DRS approach, limited efforts are made to assess the applicability of calibrated DRS models on new samples collected at different locations and/or time. To test such spatio-temporal applicability of calibrated DRS models, we collected surface soil samples from 1,112 smallholder farms during 2018 (T2018) and 607 farms during 2021 (T2021) covering seven districts of the Bundelkhand region of central India. The T2018 samples covered 7 development blocks; the T2021 samples were also collected from these blocks but from different sampling locations. Additionally, a new sampling site (Jhansi-Bamour block) was added during 2021 to create an independent test dataset. Collected samples were analysed for 17 soil parameters (basic soil properties, macronutrients, and micronutrients) and spectral reflectance over the visible to near-infrared region. Corresponding soil test crop response (STCR) ratings were also estimated. The Cubist model was calibrated in the T2018 dataset and tested against the T2021 dataset using the coefficient of determination (R2), root-mean-squared error (RMSE), and percentage relative error deviation (PRED) at 30% error threshold as performance statistics. Model applicability was assessed at each block level (site-specific), by dividing the study site into their two geology-specific regions, and by treating the entire dataset as a regional-scale spectral library. Results showed that DRS models calibrated on a finer scale (site-specific) are less efficient in estimating soil parameters in broader scale (geology-specific and regional-scale) test T2021 samples although their STCR ratings may safely be estimated at local scales. When site-specific data were aggregated to broader scales and T2018 dataset was spiked with 20% samples from the T2021 dataset, model performance improved for critical soil parameters such as soil organic carbon (SOC) contents and several plant nutrients and their ratings; application of such large-scale models also improved the estimation accuracy when applied to site-specific datasets. Exchangeable Ca and Mg, clay and SOC contents were frequently well-estimated with R2 values ranging from 0.54 to 0.93. Fine sand was the next best estimated soil property with R2 values in the range of 0.40–0.75. The STCR ratings estimated in the DRS approach matched the wet chemistry-based STCR ratings to the tune of 43 to 100%. Overall, as many as 60% of all new samples could be estimated with more than 70% accuracy for 8 out of 17 parameters. With the DRS approach tested on both spatially- and temporally-independent test datasets and, specifically, with high estimation accuracy of STCR ratings, our results suggest that the DRS approach may safely be used as a viable alternative to conventional soil testing in smallholder farms.

Effect of Transplanting Dates and Nutrient Management Options on Nutrient Partitioning and Accumulation in Rice

ABSTRACT Rice is the most important crop in India and additionally the hub of food security of the worldwide population. Integrated application of manures and fertilizers played a pivotal role for improvement of soil physico-chemical properties under different cropping systems as well as nutrient accumulation and grain yield in rice. The present investigation was conducted in sandy loam soil at Agronomy Research Farm of Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India during 2018–2019 having sub-humid climate. Field experiment was designed to evaluate the effect of two date of transplanting, which were allotted to main plots and three combinations of nutrient management options allotted for sub plots on rice crop (var. Naveen). Among all the plant parts, leaf showed higher accumulation of nitrogen (3.69, 1.92%), stem showed higher accumulation of both phosphorus (0.43, 0.35%) and potassium (2.59, 2.09%) than other plant parts during vegetative stages, while panicle showed higher accumulation of nitrogen (1.22%), phosphorus (0.28%) during harvesting stages of the rice crop. Significantly higher nitrogen accumulation in different plant parts were optimized under Soil Test Based Fertilizer Recommendation (STBFR) + Green Manure (GM; Sesbania rostrata) (0.99, 0.46, 1.28%) method of nutrient management, while phosphorus (0.10, 0.11, 0.28%) and potassium (1.00, 1.64, 0.33%) accumulation were found to be significantly higher in different plant parts under STBFR + Farm Yard Manure (FYM) method of nutrient management. Thus, early transplanting and application of STBFR + GM/FYM could be recommended for higher nutrient accumulation in rice crop.

Soil fertility prediction using combined USB-microscope based soil image, auxiliary variables, and portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry

This study explored the application of portable X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) spectrometry and soil image analysis to rapidly assess soil fertility, focusing on critical parameters such as available B, organic carbon (OC), available Mn, available S, and the sulfur availability index (SAI). Analyzing 1133 soil samples from various agro-climatic zones in Eastern India, the research combined color and texture features from microscopic soil images, PXRF data, and auxiliary soil variables (AVs) using a Random Forest model. Results indicated that integrating image features (IFs) with auxiliary variables (AVs) significantly enhanced prediction accuracy for available B (R² = 0.80) and OC (R² = 0.88). A data fusion approach, incorporating IFs, AVs, and PXRF data, further improved predictions for available Mn and SAI with R² values of 0.72 and 0.70, respectively. The study demonstrated how these integrated technologies have the potential to provide quick and affordable options for soil testing, opening up access to more sophisticated prediction models and a better comprehension of the fertility and health of the soil. Future research should focus on the application of deep learning models on a larger dataset of soil images, developed using soils from a broader range of agro-climatic zones under field condition.

Nutrients Variability in Soils of the Hill-Valley Transect of NPI Farmlands in Chitwan

Based on landscape position, soils in plain areas are generally considered to be more fertile than those in adjoining sloping areas of Nepal. This article compares the soil fertility of upland crop areas to those of lowland crop areas of Bharatpur municipality of Chitwan district using soil data from Nepal Polytechnic Institute (NPI). The study employed a rapid test method to analyze surface soil samples for pH, organic matter and available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content. In contrast to the widely held notion, results of soil test in the upland area of Kabilash exhibited superior fertility in most parameters when compared to those in the southern plain areas. Therefore, further and detailed study is warranted to validate the results in the study area.

Zinc supply effects on wheat production in a low precipitation zone

AbstractZinc (Zn) fertilization of hard red and soft white winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is uncommon in the low precipitation zone of the inland Pacific Northwest. It is uncommon because there have been no indications of deficiency. Soil test data, however, show Zn levels have been declining over time. We conducted a four‐site‐year experiment to evaluate effects of fertilization on early‐season tissue Zn concentration (TZC), dry matter accumulation (DMA), Zn uptake (ZNU), the grain test weight (TWT), protein content (PRO), and yield (YLD) of two regionally adapted cultivars. Planting occurred late in September or early in October. Zinc fertilizer, placed with the seed while planting, was applied at rates of 0 and 5 kg Zn ha−1. Application of 5 kg Zn ha−1 increased TZC and ZNU at one of two sites. There were corresponding trends of increased DMA and improved YLD. Response to fertilization occurred on a relatively shallow soil that had a diethylenetriamine‐pentaacidic acid–extractable Zn test level of 0.3 mg kg−1.

Pre Extension Demonstration of Soil Test Crop Response Based Recommended Phosphorus Fertilizer for Maize in Bako Tibe and Gobu Sayo Districts of Western Oromia, Ethiopia

Pre-extension demonstration of soil test crop response based phosphorus fertilizer recommendation for maize was conducted in Bako Tibe and Gobu Sayo districts with the objective of participatory demonstration of soil test crop response based phosphorus recommendation under farmers’ condition in 2022 cropping season. Two treatments were applied (T&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;1&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;) blanket Recommendation (T&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;2&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;) Soil Test crop response based recommended phosphorus fertilizer with improved maize (BH-661) variety. The trial was conducted on eleven farmers’ fields which were used as replications. Plot size for each treatment was 10m x 20m with the spacing of 35cm and 75cm between plants and rows respectively using seed rate of 25 kg ha&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; and with recommended optimum N-fertilizer rate of 110 kg ha&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;. In each PAs, one FREG unit comprising of 20 farmers were established. About 185 (139 male and 46 female) participants were take part on field visit based training held during physiological maturity of maize. The average total biomass with soil test crop response based Recommended phosphorus fertilizer was 32,385 kgha&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; while blanket recommendation was 27,730 kgha&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;. Again the average grain yield for STCRBPR was 7,205kg ha&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; while blanket recommendation was 4,641kg ha&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-1&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;. Similarly, the results of the economic analysis indicated that the use of p-fertilizer based on soil test crop response and the blanket suggestion with MRR 500.93% could yield net returns of 188,029.36 and 119348 ETB per hectare, respectively. As a result, the suggested phosphorus fertilizer based on soil test crop response should be expanded/scaled up to include additional maize producer farmers in the region and surrounding districts.

Effect of leachate on the geotechnical properties of soils at Gbagede Dumpsite Ilorin, Kwara State Nigeria

The increasing request for space for private buildings was brought about by the utilization of the previous dumpsites. If the issue of leachate infiltration into the soil isn't legitimately controlled it'll lead to future harm in construction works. The objectives are to compare the geotechnical properties of soil of the contaminated and uncontaminated regions region of the dump site and evaluate if the effect of leachate on the geotechnical properties of soil changes with depth. Laboratory soil tests were conducted on the soil samples obtained and compared the effect of these leachates at the dump site. These methods are Natural water content, Bulk Density, Specific Gravity, Shear strength, and Consolidation tests. The soil samples were obtained from the contaminated region, and the uncontaminated region (i.e. at 100 m away from the dumpsite). All soil samples were obtained at depths 0.5m, 1.0m, and 1.5m below the ground level, to know the effect of leachate on the soil at the dumpsite and also to know if the effects of leachate changes with depth as it goes down the soil. The results obtained show that samples at 0.5m and 1m depth have been affected by leachates but the effects are not so significant at 1.5m depth, thereby making the soil at depths 0.5m and 1m unfit for construction purposes. This result was useful to check the land requirement in urban areas and guide the geotechnical engineers when designing and constructing foundations for buildings and other related structures on these types of soils.

Geotechnical Evaluation of Landslide in Nanggerang Village

Landslides are significant geological events that can cause extensive damage to infrastructure, disrupt communities, and pose serious safety hazards. Understanding the mechanisms behind slope failures is crucial for effective risk mitigation and the development of engineering solutions to improve slope stability. According to data from the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB), Indonesia experienced 83 landslide events from January to February 2024. A notable landslide occurred in Nanggerang Village, Sukasari Sub-district, Sumedang Regency, West Java Province, on February 3, 2024. This landslide happened in a terraced rice field area following heavy rainfall earlier in the day. This study focuses on evaluating the failed slope to understand its condition just before failure and the material properties that influence the landslide event. The research methodology includes field data collection, soil testing, and slope stability analysis using the Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) with a probabilistic approach via Slide 2 software. The analysis revealed that the failed slope had an average safety factor (FS) of 0.968 and a landslide probability of 58.897%. Sensitivity analysis showed that the cohesion parameter in the soil layer (CWZ) significantly impacts the safety factor of the slope. The study concludes that the reduction in soil cohesion and internal friction angle due to excessive moisture was the primary cause of the landslide, and the cohesion parameter of the soil layer is the most sensitive factor affecting slope stability.

Magnetic and Chemical Testing in Plants, Road Dust and Soil, as Indicators of Atmospheric Pollution

Magnetic and Chemical Testing in Plants, Road Dust and Soil, as Indicators of Atmospheric Pollution

Comprehensive evaluation of product characteristics and energy consumption in hydrothermal carbonization of food waste anaerobic digestate: A perspective on phosphorus recovery and fuel properties

Food waste digestate (FWD) is rich in organic matter and phosphorus(P) elements, making it a potential source for energy and P recovery. Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) addresses FWD's dehydration and stability issues, improving hydrochar's fuel properties and P recovery in hydrothermal liquid. Experiments with various additives reveals 1M HCl's effectiveness, increasing P recovery by 88.31 % at 120 °C, decreasing hydrochar ash content by 21.42 %, and raising heating value by 45.01 %. Principal component analysis highlights the viability of acid treatment for P leaching and hydrochar enhancement, with pH as a crucial factor. HTC substantially reduces energy consumption by 57.42 % compared to direct drying. Hydrochar without additives shows potential as slow-release P fertilizers, with a 28.8 % increase in total phosphorus at 240 °C, where 99.4 % of P exists as apatite inorganic. Soil tests reveal differences with formic acid method in P availability, showing varying correlations with different P forms. This research offers insights for FWD resource utilization.

UF/IFAS Nutrient Management Recommendation Series: Hemp

Nutrient management recommendations for hemp are described according to the standard UF/IFAS recommendation format of 1) a calibrated soil test result; 2) target soil pH; 3) the "4Rs" of fertilizer management: rate, timing, placement, and source; and 4) Water management factors.

Integrated Application for Paddy Disease Detection and Remedy Suggestion

In India, agriculture is the backbone of rural communities, with the majority of villagers relying on it as their primary livelihood. However, challenges such as disease management, soil quality assessment, and weed control often limit productivity. While Kisan call centers provide essential support, their effectiveness is constrained by communication barriers and the limitations of verbal explanations. This paper proposes an innovative solution through a machine learning- based mobile application designed specifically for farmers. The app enables users to upload images of paddy disease symptoms, soil test results, and weeds for analysis. Leveraging advanced algorithms, it provides automated, data- driven recommendations for disease control, crop management, and soil improvement. The app also offers local language interfaces, making it accessible to less educated farmers. By continuously refining its decision-making capabilities through user feedback, the app evolves to meet the specific needs of different regions and farming practices. This approach not only enhances efficiency and productivity but also empowers farmers with immediate, reliable expert advice, bridging the gap between traditional practices and modern technology. Ultimately, the application aims to significantly improve agricultural outcomes, contributing to the sustainability and growth of the farming sector in India. Key Words: Paddy crop disease, Integrated, Application, suggestion, soil, weeds, resolution etc.

Comparison of Radial Ply and Cross Ply Tire in Terms of Achieved Rolling Resistance and Soil Compaction in a Soil Test Channel

Many literature sources state that radial ply tires achieve lower rolling resistance values than cross ply tires. From a certain point of view, radial ply tires are gentler on the ground than cross ply tires. The effort was therefore to experimentally verify this statement for two radial ply and cross ply tires similar in shape and size. The work deals with the diagnostics of rolling resistance levels achieved by radial ply and cross ply tires on selected forest soil under the laboratory conditions of a soil test channel. BKT 210/95 R16 Agrimax RT 855 and Özka 7.50-16 8PR KNK 50 were chosen as radial ply and cross ply tires, respectively, and had approximately the same dimensions. The soil in the soil test channel can be characterized as a loamy sand with an average moisture content of 30% and an initial bulk density of 1445.07 kg·m−3. Another monitored parameter was the diagnostics of changes in soil density caused by tire movement in order to assess the degree of soil compaction. From the results of the work, it follows that there is no statistically significant difference between radial ply and cross ply tires in terms of the achieved levels of rolling resistance on the soil. The observed tires also caused intense compaction of the soil in the soil test channel, especially at higher tire pressures and higher vertical loads. The analysis of the results also shows that changes in tire pressure in both tires cause more energy loss and soil compaction than changes in the vertical load.