Soft Coral Research Articles

Study of Coral Reefs in the Tourism Zone of Hoga Island, Wakatobi National Park, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia

One of the ecosystems in tropical waters is the coral reef. Coral reefs serve multiple functions, both ecologically and economically. The marine waters in Wakatobi Regency boast diverse coral reefs, and this study aims to assess the coral reefs in one of its regions, specifically in the waters around Hoga Island, part of Wakatobi National Park. The research was conducted from March to May 2023, involving direct observations at the research site. The collected data were then analyzed and presented descriptively concerning the percentage of coral reefs in the study area. The percentage of coral cover in the growth forms (lifeform) of the Wakatobi National Park tourism zone, region II, revealed that, at the first station, coral cover was 46.33%, dominated by Coral Branching (CB) at 22.36%, and Biotic, primarily Soft Coral (SC), at 14.95%. At the second station, coral cover was 36.13%, with Coral Branching (CB) accounting for 11.53%, and Soft Coral (SC) at 25.33%. The third station exhibited a coral cover percentage of 60.37%.

Spatial patterns of soft coral (Octocorallia) assemblages in the shallow coral reefs of Okinawa Island, Ryukyu Archipelago, Japan: Dominance on highly disturbed reefs

Soft corals (Octocorallia) are major and conspicuous benthic components of coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific region. However, despite their major ecological roles, they are still generally understudied. In this study, we investigated the spatial patterns of the community assemblages of soft corals in the waters around subtropical Okinawa Island, Japan. Surveys were conducted at selected sites across an anthropogenic pressure gradient using a hierarchical sampling design to compare soft coral cover and assemblages at different spatial scales. The results revealed significant variations in the mean soft coral cover at different spatial scales, with higher cover in the sites with high levels of anthropogenic pressure. Similarity of percentages analysis showed the overall dominance of Sclerophytum, Lobophytum, and Sarcophyton, genera that are known to have high resiliency to environmental stress. Canonical correspondence analysis also revealed a negative relationship between the dominant soft coral groups and hard coral cover, suggesting that past hard coral mortality events may have set the stage for soft coral dominance. The changes in the relative coverage of benthic components as compared to past studies, specifically the increased dominance of soft corals over hard corals in highly disturbed sites, support this hypothesis. This study provides a detailed look at the spatial patterns of soft coral communities around Okinawa Island and should be useful for projections on the future state of coral reefs as anthropogenic pressures continue to increase.

Nine New Antibacterial Diterpenes and Steroids from the South China Sea Soft Coral Lobophytum catalai Tixier-Durivault.

Five new cembrane-type diterpenes, lobocalines A-E (1-5), and four new steroids, lobocaloids A-D (9-12), along with six known related compounds (6-8 and 13-15) were isolated from the Yalong Bay soft coral Lobophytum catalai Tixier-Durivault. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis, NMR calculation with DP4+ analysis, time-dependent density functional theory-electronic circular dichroism (TDDFT-ECD) calculations, X-ray diffraction analyses and comparison with the reported spectroscopic data of known compounds. Further, with the aid of X-ray diffraction analysis, the structure of lobocrasol B (15) was firmly revised as 15a. In in vitro bioassays, compound 2 showed moderate antibacterial activities against fish pathogenic bacteria Streptococcus parauberis KSP28 and Phoyobacterium damselae FP2244 with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 8.7 and 17.3 µg/mL, respectively. All the steroids exhibited antibacterial activities against the S. parauberis KSP28 with MIC values ranging from 12.3 to 53.6 µg/mL. Compounds 2, 7 and 14 have remarkable inhibitory effects on the hemolysin production of Staphylococcus aureus, while compounds 8-12 have medium inhibitory effects on the pyocyanin production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

A Brain-Protective Sterol from Soft Coral Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Matrix Metalloproteinase-9-Mediated Astrocytic Migration.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are proteolytic enzymes, promote blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, leading to neuronal damage and neuroinflammation. Among them, MMP-9 upregulation serves as an inflammatory biomarker in the central nervous system (CNS). Currently, the development of marine organism-derived bioactive compounds or metabolites as anti-inflammatory drugs has received considerable attention. The 9,11-secosteroid, 3β,11-dihydroxy-9,11-secogorgost-5-en-9-one (4p3f), is a novel sterol compound extracted from the soft coral Sinularia leptoclado with potential anti-inflammatory activity. However, the effect of and potential for brain protection of 4p3f on brain astrocytes remain unclear. Herein, we used rat brain astrocytes (RBAs) to investigate the effects and signaling mechanisms of 4p3f on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced MMP-9 expression via zymographic, quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), Western blot, immunofluorescence staining, promoter-reporter, and cell migration analyses. We first found that 4p3f blocked LPS-induced MMP-9 expression in RBAs. Next, we demonstrated that LPS induced MMP-9 expression via the activation of ERK1/2, p38 MAPK, and JNK1/2, which is linked to the STAT3-mediated NF-κB signaling pathway. Finally, 4p3f effectively inhibited LPS-induced upregulation of MMP-9-triggered RBA cell migration. These data suggest that a novel sterol from soft coral, 4p3f, may have anti-inflammatory and brain-protective effects by attenuating these signaling pathways of MMP-9-mediated events in brain astrocytes. Accordingly, the soft coral-derived sterol 4p3f may emerge as a potential candidate for drug development or as a natural compound with neuroprotective properties.

Modeling vortex-induced vibrations of branched structures by coupling a 3D-corotational frame finite element formulation with wake-oscillators

Branched structures are present in a diverse set of problems, from modeling branch pipe connections to simulating tree dynamics. Soft corals like the Bipinnate sea plume, have a branched geometry and are soft enough to bend under the waves. Due to their circular cross section, a vortex street forms in the coral’s wake inducing vibrations of its branches. Despite extensive studies on VIV in straight geometries, the three-dimensional (3D) dynamics of flexible branched structures remains uninvestigated. In this numerical and experimental study, we develop a novel formulation for the accurate computation of in-line and cross-flow VIV of frame structures undergoing large deformation. The finite element approach is used to model arbitrarily complex geometries of branched frame structures. Our formulation allows to model complex geometries with forks or sharp angles. The consistent 3D corotational formulation for frame elements computes the internal, inertial and hydrodynamic forces. A wake-oscillator approach models the near wake dynamics with fluctuating fluid forces on the structure in the in-line and cross-flow directions. The drag and lift coefficients follow distributed Van der Pol oscillators. Moreover, we implement the numerical resolution procedure in the open-source library ONSAS. The present formulation and numerical resolution procedure is validated by solving three examples, including comparisons with an analytical solution, a wake-oscillator, and experimental data from the literature. We also conduct experiments of a flexible and elastic cylinder clamped inside a water tunnel under a constant uniform flow. Amplitudes and power spectral density of the tip transverse displacements are compared with the model prediction. Finally, the proposed formulation is applied on a cylinder with two branches. The simulations demonstrate a multi-frequency response with higher amplitudes of displacements when additional branches are incorporated onto the cylinder, emphasizing the significance of considering VIV in nature and engineering applications for such geometries.

A new genus of soft coral (Octocorallia, Malacalcyonacea, Cladiellidae) and three new species from Indo-Pacific coral reefs.

Molecular systematic studies of the anthozoan class Octocorallia have revealed widespread incongruence between phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic classification at all levels of the Linnean hierarchy. Among the soft coral taxa in order Malacalcyonacea, the family Alcyoniidae and its type genus Alcyonium have both been recognised to be highly polyphyletic. A recent family-level revision of Octocorallia established a number of new families for genera formerly considered to belong to Alcyoniidae, but revision of Alcyonium is not yet complete. Previous molecular studies have supported the placement of Alcyoniumverseveldti (Benayahu, 1982) in family Cladiellidae rather than Alcyoniidae, phylogenetically distinct from the other three genera in that family. Here we describe a new genus, Ofwegenumgen. nov. to accommodate O.verseveldticomb. nov. and three new species of that genus, O.coronalucissp. nov., O.kloogisp. nov., and O.collisp. nov., bringing the total number of species in this genus to four. Ofwegenumgen. nov. is a rarely encountered genus so far known from only a few locations spanning the Indian and western Pacific Oceans. We present the morphological characters of each species and use molecular data from both DNA barcoding and target-enrichment of conserved elements to explore species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships within the genus.

Microbiome changes in Sinularia spp. soft corals relative to health status

Microbiome changes in Sinularia spp. soft corals relative to health status

The application and sustainable development of coral in traditional medicine and its chemical composition, pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical research.

This review discusses the variety, chemical composition, pharmacological effects, toxicology, and clinical research of corals used in traditional medicine in the past twodecades. At present, several types of medicinal coral resources are identified, which are used in 56 formulas such as traditional Chinese medicine, Tibetan medicine, Mongolian medicine, and Uyghur medicine. A total of 34 families and 99 genera of corals are involved in medical research, with the Alcyoniidae family and Sarcophyton genus being the main research objects. Based on the structural types of compounds and the families and genera of corals, this review summarizes the compounds primarily reported during the period, including terpenoids, steroids, nitrogen-containing compounds, and other terpenoids dominated by sesquiterpene and diterpenes. The biological activities of coral include cytotoxicity (antitumor and anticancer), anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial, antiviral, immunosuppressive, antioxidant, and neurological properties, and a detailed summary of the mechanisms underlying these activities or related targets is provided. Coral toxicity mostly occurs in the marine ornamental soft coral Zoanthidae family, with palytoxin as the main toxic compound. In addition, nonpeptide neurotoxins are extracted from aquatic corals. The compatibility of coral-related preparations did not show significant acute toxicity, but if used for a long time, it will still cause toxicity to the liver, kidneys, lungs, and other internal organs in a dose-dependent manner. In clinical applications, individual application of coral is often used as a substitute for orthopedic materials to treat diseases such as bone defects and bone hyperplasia. Second, coral is primarily available in the form of compound preparations, such as Ershiwuwei Shanhu pills and Shanhu Qishiwei pills, which are widely used in the treatment of neurological diseases such as migraine, primary headache, epilepsy, cerebral infarction, hypertension, and other cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. It is undeniable that the effectiveness of coral research has exacerbated the endangered status of corals. Therefore, there should be no distinction between the advantages and disadvantages of listed endangered species, and it is imperative to completely prohibit their use and provide equal protection to help them recover to their normal numbers. This article can provide some reference for research on coral chemical composition, biological activity, chemical ecology, and the discovery of marine drug lead compounds. At the same time, it calls for people to protect endangered corals from the perspectives of prohibition, substitution, and synthesis.

Antibacterial Activity and Molecular Identification of Soft Coral Sinularia sp. Symbiont Bacteria from Karimunjawa Island against Skin Pathogens Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis

Soft corals can produce bioactive compounds that act as antibacterials. Sinularia sp. is a soft coral that can produce antibacterial compounds. Symbion bacteria are bacteria that can produce bioactive compounds that tend to be the same as their host. The use of symbiont bacteria can be an alternative to exploit the potential of Sinularia sp. without harming marine life. This study aims to determine the antibacterial potential of the symbiont bacteria obtained from the soft coral Sinularia sp. in inhibiting the growth of Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis. The antibacterial activity test was carried out by the agar diffusion method using disc paper. Antibacterial activity was indicated by the formation of a clear zone around the disc paper. The results showed that LA7 isolate had the best antibacterial activity with an average clear zone size of 14.6 mm against Staphylococcus epidermidis and 16.6 mm against Propionibacterium acnes. LA7 isolates identified species based on the 16S rRNA gene with primers 27F and 1492R. Based on molecular species support, it was found that LA7 isolate is Bacillus aerius with a homology level of 98.17%.

Unveiling the potential of marine-derived diterpenes from the order Alcyonacea as promising anti-obesity agents

Metabolic syndrome (MS) represents a global health challenge characterized by various metabolic disorders, including HOMA-IR (insulin resistance), obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension. In our pursuit of identifying natural alternatives for the development of effective and safe anti-obesity medications, we examined the potential of the methanolic extract of the Red Sea derived soft coral Sarcophyton glaucum, where serum levels of glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, lipid profile, fetuin A and B, PTP1Β (Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B), adropin and omentin were determined. Furthermore, the expression of the UCP1 (Uncoupling protein 1) and PPARGC1A (Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor-g coactivator-1a) genes have been assessed, to evaluate the anti-obesity potential of S. glaucum organic extract. Our findings demonstrated a significant decrease in glucose, HOMA-IR, cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-C, fetuin A and B, and PTP1Β levels, accompanied by a significant increase in insulin, HDL-C, adropin, omentin, UCP1, and PPARGC1A expression after treatment with the soft coral extract. These promising outcomes can be attributed to the remarkable ingredients present in the extract, which were further supported by histopathological findings. In addition, a virtual screening protocol including molecular docking (MDock) and Structure-Activity Relationships (SARs) of 27 marine diterpenes was also explored to identify potential PTP1Β inhibitors targeting simultaneously the catalytic site and allosteric site, as well as fetuin A modulators. Moreover, the six most promising predicted marine diterpenes (4, 8, 9, 10, 13 and 14) were investigated for their pharmacokinetic properties, druglike nature and medicinal chemistry friendliness using the SwissADME platform. Of these, four marine diterpenes (4, 8, 9, and 10) were predicted to exhibit the appropriate drug-like properties.

Total synthesis and structure-antifouling activity relationship of scabrolide F.

An efficient synthetic strategy for scabrolide F (7), a norcembranolide diterpene that was isolated from the Taiwanese soft coral Sinularia scabra, has only recently been reported by our group. Herein, we report details of the first total synthesis of 7. The tetrahydrofuran domain of 7 was stereoselectively constructed via the 5-endo-tet cyclization of a hydroxy vinyl epoxide. The reaction of alkyl iodide 30 with dithiane 38, followed by the introduction of an alkene moiety, afforded allylation precursor 41. The coupling of alkyl iodide 42 and allylic stannane 43 was examined as a model experiment of allylation. Because the desired allylated product 44 was not obtained, an alternative synthetic route toward 7 was investigated instead. In the second synthetic approach, fragment-coupling between alkyl iodide 56 and aldehyde 58, macrolactonization, and transannular ring-closing metathesis were used as the key steps to achieve the first total synthesis of 7. We hope that this synthetic strategy provides access to the total synthesis of other macrocyclic norcembranolides. We also evaluated the antifouling activity and toxicity of 7 and its synthetic intermediates toward the cypris larvae of the barnacle Amphibalanus amphitrite. This study is the first to report the antifouling activity of norcembranolides as well as the biological activity of 7.

New records of soft corals (Cnidaria: Octocorallia) at Digha and adjacent areas, West Bengal, India

New records of soft corals (Cnidaria: Octocorallia) at Digha and adjacent areas, West Bengal, India

Four uncommon cycloamphilectane-type diterpenoids with antibacterial activity from the South China Sea soft coral Sinularia brassica

The chemical investigation on the soft coral Sinularia brassica collected off Xuwen Country, Guangdong Province, China, has resulted in the isolation and characterization of three uncommon cycloamphilectane-type diterpenoids, namely sinucycloamtin A–C (1–3), along with two known analogues (5 and 6). In addition, compounds 2 and 3 were hydrolyzed and their hydrolytic derivative sinucycloamtin D (4) was obtained. The structures of these previously undescribed compounds were established on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, chemical conversion, as well as the comparison with the literature reported data. Compounds 1–3 represented the first examples of benzene-containing cycloamphilectane-type diterpenoids isolated from soft coral of genus Sinularia. In the in vitro bioassays, all the isolated and derived diterpenoids exhibited significant antibacterial activities against the fish pathogenic bacteria Phoyobacterium damselae FP2244 and Streptococcus parauberis SPOF3K with MIC90 values ranging from 3.7 to 9.1 μM.

Photosynthesis in a green alga (zoochlorella), Chlorella cf. vulgaris in the soft coral Sarcophyton sp.

ABSTRACT An undescribed variety of the green alga Chlorella cf. vulgaris was found living in the octocoral (soft coral) Sarcophyton sp., which also has dinoflagellate zooxanthellae. The green alga is present in very small numbers and is capable of photoheterotrophy based on growth in the presence of an inhibitor of photosynthesis, DCMU, with glycerol provided as a carbon source. The presence of zoochlorellae (Chl a + b), in soft corals appears to have been unsuspected. The easily cultured green alga was unicellular, unflagellated and very small, c. 2 to 6 µm in diameter and had a relatively high Chl b content (Chl b/a = 0.379 ± 0.063). Rapid light curves using PAM fluorometry on the cultured cells showed that Yield vs. irradiance had a low maximum yield (Ymax, 0.388 ± 0.0132; Irradiance ½ point, E½Ymax = 139 ± 11.1 µmol photon m–2 s–1). The overall optimum irradiance (Eopt) for the alga was 314 ± 18.8 µmol photon m–2 s–1. The alga can photosynthesize at 50% or more of the optimum rate from 70 to 900 µmol photon m–2 s–1 but would be severely inhibited under full sunlight. Most naturally occurring low irradiance habitats may have a low median irradiance but are exposed intermittently to very high irradiances and so a relatively high Eopt is advantageous in minimizing photochemical damage. Like the green algal symbiont Elliptochloris marina of sea anemones, Chlorella cf. vulgaris is not exclusively marine: it grows better in freshwater medium where it has different photosynthetic characteristics (higher Ymax, Eopt and ETRmax). Chlorella cf. vulgaris appears to be capable of photoheterotrophy and it is not clear if it is a symbiont, a commensal or a parasite.

Sinularin stabilizes FOXO3 protein to trigger prostate cancer cell intrinsic apoptosis

Sinularin, a natural product that purified from soft coral, exhibits anti-tumor effects against various human cancers. However, the mechanisms are not well understood. In this study, we demonstrated that Sinularin inhibited the viability of human prostate cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner and displayed significant cytotoxicity only at high concentration against normal prostate epithelial cell RWPE-1. Flow cytometry assay demonstrated that Sinularin induced tumor cell apoptosis. Further investigations revealed that Sinularin exerted anti-tumor activity through intrinsic apoptotic pathway along with up-regulation of pro-apoptotic protein Bax and PUMA, inhibition of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, mitochondrial membrane potential collapses, and release of mitochondrial proteins. Furthermore, we illustrated that Sinularin induced cell apoptosis via up-regulating PUMA through inhibition of FOXO3 degradation by the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway. To explore how Sinularin suppress FOXO3 ubiquitin–proteasome degradation, we tested two important protein kinases AKT and ERK that regulate FOXO3 stabilization. The results revealed that Sinularin stabilized and up-regulated FOXO3 via inhibition of AKT- and ERK1/2-mediated FOXO3 phosphorylation and subsequent ubiquitin–proteasome degradation. Our findings illustrated the potential mechanisms by which Sinularin induced cell apoptosis and Sinularin may be applied as a therapeutic agent for human prostate cancer.

Sarcocinerenoids A—J, Eight Rare Capnosane‐Type and Two New Cage‐Type Cembranoids with Promoting Angiogenesis Activity from the South China Sea Soft Coral Sarcophyton cinereum

Comprehensive SummaryEight rare capnosane‐type cembranoids, sarcocinerenoids A—H (1—8) and two new cage‐type cembranoids sarcocinerenoids I—J (9—10) were isolated from the soft coral Sarcophyton cinereum. The 5/11 bicyclic carbon skeleton is the same in Sarcocinerenoids A—H (1—8), and they collocate distinctive oxygen rings. Sarcocinerenoids I—J (9—10) with a cage‐type structure have been discovered to have an oxygen bridge and an uncommon seven‐membered ring. Extensive spectroscopic investigation, X‐ray diffraction analysis, estimated ECD, and DP4+ probability assessments were used to ascertain the structures of the two types of diterpenoids. Moreover, compounds 1, 4 showed promoting angiogenesis activity in zebrafish assays.

Six Undescribed Capnosane-Type Macrocyclic Diterpenoids from South China Sea Soft Coral Sarcophyton crassocaule: Structural Determination and Biological Evaluation.

Six undescribed capnosane-type macrocyclic diterpenes sarcocrassolins A-F (1-6) and one related known analog pavidolide D (7) were isolated from Sarcophyton crassocaule, a soft coral collected off the Nansha Islands, in the South China Sea. Their complete structures, relative configurations and absolute configurations were established through comprehensive spectroscopic analysis, quantum mechanical nuclear magnetic resonance (QM-NMR) and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Sarcocrassolins D (4) and E (5) showed inhibitory activity against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated inflammatory responses in RAW264.7 cells with IC50 values of 76.8 ± 8.0 μM and 93.0 ± 3.8 μM, respectively.

Characteristic of Microplastic on Coral Reef Sediment and Sea Urchin (Diadema sp.) in Tidung Island, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia

Microplastics are recognized as common contaminants of coral ecosystem in Tidung Island, affecting both sediment and sea urchins residing in this environment. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the characteristics of microplastics found in sediment, the mouth, and the digestive system of sea urchins (Diadema sp.), assessing the relationship between coral cover percentage and microplastic type and size, and the transfer of microplastics from sediment to sea urchins. Sampling was conducted twice, namely in October 2021 and October 2022. Microplastics in sediments were extracted using ZnCl2. The destruction process of sea urchins used 30% H2O2 and FeSO4.7H2O, while the microplastics were identified with Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The results showed that the microplastics found in the sediments and sea urchins were similar in terms of shape, color, size, and plastic polymers. The forms of microplastics found in this study were fibre, fragment, and foam with fibre predominance, based on the results obtained. The size of microplastics found in sediments and sea urchins was dominated by sizes >1000 µm. Fibres were found in hard coral (HC) and dead coral (DC) conditions while fragments and foams were present in turf algae (TA), sponge (SP), and soft coral (SC) conditions. The microplastics found in sea urchins originate in part from sediments because they have similar characteristics. Sea urchins ingested microplastics from sediment, particularly those grown by algae as a food source. The increase in the number of microplastics found in sediment could potentially result in higher abundance in the biota.

Hai loài san hô mềm Xenia novaebritanniae Ashworth, 1900 và Xenia lillieae Roxas, 1933 (Malacalcyonacea: Xeniidae) mới phát hiện ở đảo Song Tử Tây – quần đảo Trường Sa – Việt Nam

The coral in the Truong Sa archipelago (Spratly Islands) is considered of high diversity, the pervious research showed that Truong Sa archipelago has over 333 species of 71 genera and 15 families of hard corals, accounting for 74% of the species known in Vietnam and 57.6% of the coral species recorded in neighbouring South China Sea (Bien Dong) countries. However, the studying on soft coral biodiversity is extremely limited, this result was the first time two soft coral species, Xenia novaebritanniae and Xenia lillieae, were found in Spratly archipelago (Song Tu Tay/Southwest Cay). The morphological differences and sclerite structure of the soft coral specimens are described in detail. Previously, these two species were only found in the coastal waters of Central Viet Nam. Our findings not only contribute to expanding the distribution of soft corals, but also increasing the value of coral reef ecosystem biodiversity in this area.

Assessment of coral reef condition using upt (underwater photo transect) method on gili labak island madura indonesia

Coral reefs are unique, complex and high-productivity marine ecosystems that make coral reefs a place to grow and breed most fish and biota in the waters, and physically the function of coral reefs is to withstand coastal abrasion, break waves and so on. To be able to manage coral reefs properly, valid data support is needed as a basis for formulating a policy. Gili Labak Island is one of the islands that is currently a tourist attraction because it has a very wide expanse of coral reefs. The UPT method is a method that utilizes technological developments, because in this method digital camera technology and computer software are used. Data retrieval in the form of underwater photos is done by shooting using an underwater digital camera. The photographs were then analyzed using computer software to obtain quantitative data. This study aims to calculate the biota in the transect. The results obtained Coral 72.92%, Dead coral (DC) 2.03, Dead Coral Algae (DCA) 9.09%, Soft Coral (SC) 0.33%, Rubble (R) 6.15%, Sand (S) 8.98%, Rock (RK) 0.52%.