Socioeconomic Disruption Research Articles

Women’s experience of perinatal support in a high migrant Australian population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a mixed methods study

BackgroundAs a COVID-19 risk mitigation measure, Australia closed its international borders for two years with significant socioeconomic disruption including impacting approximately 30% of the Australian population who are migrants. Migrant populations during the peripartum often rely on overseas relatives visiting for social support. High quality social support is known to lead to improved health outcomes with disruption to support a recognised health risk.AimTo explore women’s experience of peripartum social support during the COVID-19 pandemic in a high migrant population. To quantify type and frequency of support to identify characteristics of vulnerable perinatal populations for future pandemic preparedness.MethodsA mixed methods study with semi-structured interviews and a quantitative survey was conducted from October 2020 to April 2021. A thematic approach was used for analysis.ResultsThere were 24 participants interviewed both antenatally and postnatally (22 antenatal; 18 postnatal). Fourteen women were migrants and 10 Australian born. Main themes included; ‘Significant disruption and loss of peripartum support during the COVID-19 pandemic and ongoing impact for migrant women’; ‘Husbands/partners filling the support gap’ and ‘Holding on by a virtual thread’. Half of the participants felt unsupported antenatally. For Australian born women, this dissipated postnatally, but migrants continued to feel unsupported. Migrant women discussed partners stepped into traditional roles and duties of absent mothers and mothers-in-law who were only available virtually.ConclusionThis study identified disrupted social support for migrant women during the pandemic, providing further evidence that the pandemic has disproportionately impacted migrant populations. However, the benefits identified in this study included high use of virtual support, which could be leveraged for improving clinical care in the present and in future pandemics. The COVID-19 pandemic impacted most women’s peripartum social support with migrant families having ongoing disruption. Gains in the pandemic included greater gender equity for domestic work as husbands/partners increased their contribution to domestic work and childcare.

Uncovering the Dynamics of Consumption‐Based Household Water Footprint in Response to Pandemic: The Hysteresis Effect of Disruption

AbstractThe socioeconomic disruption of COVID‐19 has strong implications for water management. However, it remains unclear how water use related to urban and rural household consumption responded to the outbreak. Taking 15 provincial regions in China for a case study, we quantified the variations of consumption‐based household water footprint induced by the first outbreak of the pandemic and tracked the responsive changes of interregional virtual water flows and control relationships. We found in many regions, the most drastic change occurred only a quarter after the major outbreak, when the average water footprint of urban and rural households decreased by 13% and 9%, respectively. This indicates the presence of a hysteretic effect of disruption to household expenditures. With the subsequent recovery of household consumption, the water footprints in many regions rebounded and even surpassed the historical values. Guangdong had a fast rebound in its net virtual water inflow related to urban households because of the fast recovery of its manufacturing and services activities. The pandemic‐related water footprint dynamics suggest not only the necessity of timely managing supply chains to prevent shortage of water and water‐intensive products, but also the importance of fostering consumption adjustments for conserving water in a post‐pandemic era.

Urban resilience to socioeconomic disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from China

The COVID-19 pandemic and the associated restrictions have raised the awareness of building pandemic-resilient cities. Prior studies often evaluated the resilience of one type of urban system while lacking a comparison across various urban subsystems. This study fills this gap by measuring and comparing the adaptive resilience to the pandemic of various urban subsystems in Chinese cities. We propose a novel outcome measurement of the pandemic's socioeconomic impacts on cities, i.e., the citizens' complaints data, and use its temporal changes to measure cities' adaptive resilience to the pandemic. We find a wide range of urban subsystems were severely shocked by the pandemic, including the urban economy, construction-and-housing sector, welfare system, and education system. Different urban subsystems exhibit divergent degrees of adaptive resilience to the pandemic. Using cluster analysis, we also identify three types of cities with different patterns of adaptive resilience: cities whose general economies were the least resilient, cities whose construction-and-housing system was the least resilient, and cities that were mostly affected by restriction measures. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the pandemic's socioeconomic costs and help identify the divergent resilience of different urban subsystems so as to develop targeted policy interventions to improve cities' resilience to the pandemic.

Leveraging Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions for Devising COVID-19 Control Strategies

The COVID-19 Pandemic has caused unprecedented global challenges, including significant socioeconomic disruptions and the closure of schools and universities in almost all countries. Understanding the role of culture in shaping individual and societal responses to the Pandemic is crucial. This review article examines the applicability of Hofstede's cultural dimensions framework in devising effective COVID-19 control strategies. The article provides an overview of each dimension and its impact on the implementation of COVID-19 control strategies. It also includes a case analysis of four countries - India, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Poland - to illustrate the interplay between culture and COVID-19 control strategies. The insights provided by Hofstede's framework and the case analysis demonstrate that cultural differences can significantly impact the success of COVID-19 control strategies. By taking these differences into account, governments and public health authorities can improve the effectiveness of their COVID-19 control measures.

COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: BUSINESS TRAGEDY AND OPPORTUNITIES AT A GLANCE

The tragedy that awaited the world at the dawn of 2020 with the surfacing of the new COVID-19 pandemic was recognized as deadliest in recent history considering from the standpoint of its socio-economic and political disruptions worldwide. No country was left untouched by the pandemic as even in Nigeria, businesses activities were reduced by at least 50%, putting an estimated 26.42 million employees at risk of losing their jobs. Thus, this study focused at Covid-19 pandemic and entrepreneurship development in Nigeria vis-à-vis business tragedy and opportunities at a glance. An exploratory design approach was adopted and data collected mainly from secondary sources especially qualitative from a theoretical perspective of existing literatures. The findings revealed that there were two categories of goods in the market: essential and non-essential goods. It was also discovered that while businesses and economies were hit hard negatively worldwide, especially aviation, service and the tourism industries, there were some sectors that had phenomenal results such as online conferencing applications, e-Commerce, online food retailing, pickup and delivery services, robotics, pharmaceutical, and the gaming industries, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic as they saw upsurge in sales and revenues. Several emerging entrepreneurial opportunities were also recognized and recommended for entrepreneurs to take advantage of and make profit, providing what is really essential in these hard times.

Ozone Pollution of Megacity Shanghai during City-Wide Lockdown Assessed Using TROPOMI Observations of NO2 and HCHO

An unprecedented city-wide lockdown took place in Shanghai from April to May 2022 to curb the spread of COVID-19, which caused socio-economic disruption but a significant reduction of anthropogenic emissions in this metropolis. However, the ground-based monitoring data showed that the concentration of ozone (O3) remained at a high level. This study applied Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) observations to examine changes in tropospheric vertical column density (VCD) of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and formaldehyde (HCHO), which are precursors of O3. Compared with the same period in 2019–2021, VCDs of NO2 and HCHO decreased respectively by ~50% and ~20%. Multiple regression analysis showed that the lockdown effect played a dominant role in this dramatic decline rather than meteorological impacts. Using the exponentially-modified Gaussian method, this study quantified nitrogen oxides (NOX) emission in Shanghai as 32.60 mol/s with a decrease of 50–80%, which was mainly contributed by the transportation and industrial sectors. The significant reduction of NOX emission in Shanghai is much higher than that of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which led to dramatic changes in formaldehyde-to-nitrogen dioxide ratio (HCHO/NO2, FNR). Thus, when enforcing regulation on NOx emission control in the future, coordinately reducing VOCs emission should be implemented to mitigate urban O3 pollution.

Immunosenescence and severity of COVID-19

Summary: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, and socio-economic disruption globally. Increasing age and ageing-associated comorbidities such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and chronic cardiac, respiratory, kidney and liver diseases are associated with greater risk of adverse outcomes including severe illness, hospitalisation, intensive care admission and death. Older individuals are disproportionately affected regardless of pre-existing comorbidities. Ageing-related changes to the immune system results in a less effective response to novel pathogens. Atrophy of the thymus and a consequentially reduced T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire maybe responsible for the increasing severity of infection with advancing age, as T cells play a crucial role in viral clearance generally and in COVID-19. Vaccination programmes are currently gaining momentum and could potentially provide a route out of the pandemic. Relevance: Viral pandemics are not uncommon; H1N1, Ebola, Zika, SARS, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and now COVID-19 have been a significant cause of public disturbance, morbidity, and mortality over the past two decades. We are likely to continue to encounter novel viral pathogens increasingly commonly in the coming years. Medical students should therefore develop an understanding of the immune response to viruses and take this opportunity to familiarise themselves with the features of the COVID-19 pandemic. An appreciation of immunosenescence is also key as our communities continue to age. Take home messages: • Symptoms of COVID-19 are heterogenous; individuals can be asymptomatic, have mild flu-like symptoms or severe respiratory disease and systemic complications. • A potent T cell and B cell response is present with SARS-COV-2 infection, with antibodies targeting the viral spike protein. • Immunosenescence is associated with a poorer response to novel and evolving pathogens. • Vaccines show high efficacy against COVID-19 and mass vaccination programmes could be the route out of the pandemic.

Pandemic-related socioeconomic disruptions and adverse health outcomes: a cross-sectional study of female caregivers

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic and efforts to mitigate transmission resulted in sudden and widespread socioeconomic disruptions including school and child care closures, unemployment and underemployment, and housing precarity. Understanding the extent to which these disruptions may have contributed to adverse health outcomes is critical for establishing policy priorities that can mitigate further harm.MethodsWe explored the associations between pandemic-related child care, employment, and housing disruptions with depressive symptoms, self-rated health, and food security status among a sample of economically disadvantaged and racially diverse female caregivers of young children (n=464). Data were derived from the Assessing California Communities’ Experiences with Safety Net Supports (ACCESS) study, which conducted survey-based interviews with California caregivers with low-income from August 2020 – May 2021. We implemented a series of multivariable Poisson regressions with robust standard errors to assess the potency of each exposure, independently and within the context of one another.ResultsMost caregivers experienced disruptions to child care (70%) and employment (63%); few experienced major housing disruptions (8%). Women that experienced child care and housing disruptions had greater depressive symptoms, lower self-rated health, and greater food insecurity, although the relationships for housing and depressive symptoms were modified by the timing of participants’ interviews. Employment disruptions were not associated with any of the examined adverse health outcomes.ConclusionIn the wake of socioeconomic stressors brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, attending to structural deficits in the child care system and increasing housing supports may be critical for protecting the health of caregivers.

Ensemble Deep Convolution Neural Network for Sars-Cov-V2 Detection

The continuing Covid-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV2 virus, has attracted the eye of researchers and many studies have focussed on controlling it. Covid-19 has affected the daily life, employment, and health of human beings along with socio-economic disruption. Deep Learning (DL) has shown great potential in various medical applications in the past decade and continues to assist in effective medical image analysis. Therefore, it is effectively being utilized to explore its potential in controlling the pandemic. Chest X-Ray (CXR) images were used in studies pertaining to DL for medical image analysis. With the burgeoning of Covid-19 cases by day, it becomes imperative to effectively screen patients whose CXR images show a tendency of Covid-19 infection. Several innovative Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models have been proposed so far for classifying medical CXR images. Moreover, some studies used a transfer learning (TL) approach on state-of-art CNN models for the classification task. In this paper, we do a comparative study of these CNN models and TL approaches on state-of-art CNN models and have proposed an ensemble Deep Convolution Neural Network model (DCNN)

Socioeconomic disruptions of harmful algal blooms in indigenous communities: The case of Quinault Indian nation

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) have been a pervasive challenge across coastal communities of the U.S. West Coast in recent years negatively affecting local economies and livelihoods. We focus on the effects of HABs to the Quinault Indian Nation (QIN) triggered by Pseudo-nitzschia that produce the toxin domoic acid (DA). This toxin accumulates in filter feeders and poses threats to human health via shellfish consumption. Consumption of razor clams with high levels of DA and Dungeness crab that prey on them can cause amnesic shellfish poisoning in humans and therefore requires closure of commercial, recreational and subsistence fisheries, postponing or limiting harvesting seasons. These disruptions result in significant losses in revenues along with negative effects to sociocultural dimensions of key importance to coastal communities. Livelihoods and wellbeing of tribal communities are affected disproportionately due to higher vulnerability and reliance on these marine resources for subsistence. We assess these effects at multiple levels for the QIN and discuss and reflect, through a tribal lens, upon advances and opportunities for impact mitigation and adaptation in the face of HABs, along with persisting challenges.

"We Were Afraid": Mental Health Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Two South African Districts.

The impacts of pandemics are recognized to go beyond infection, physical suffering, and socio-economic disruptions. Other consequences include psychological responses. Using a mental wellbeing lens, we analyzed COVID-19-related stressors in healthcare workers (HCWs) and community members who provided and regularly accessed health services in South Africa, respectively. From February to September 2021, during the second COVID-19 wave we conducted a qualitative study in one urban and one rural district. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect data among 43 HCWs and 51 community members purposely and conveniently selected. Most participants experienced mental health challenges regarding multiple aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic and its resulting lockdown, with a few reporting positive adjustments to change. COVID-19 impacts on mental health were consistent among both HCWs and community members in urban and rural alike. Participants’ COVID-19-induced psychological responses included anxiety and fear of the unknown, perceived risk of infection, fear of hospitalization, and fear of dying. Physical effects of the pandemic on participants included COVID-19 infection and associated symptoms, possibilities of severe illness and discomfort of using personal protective equipment. These distresses were exacerbated by social repercussions related to concerns for family wellbeing and infection stigma. Lockdown regulations also intensified anxieties about financial insecurities and social isolation. At times when common coping mechanisms such as family support were inaccessible, cultural consequences related to lack of spiritual gatherings and limited funeral rites posed additional stress on participants. In preparation for future public health emergencies, recognition needs to be given to mental health support and treatment.

The role of corporations in addressing non-market institutional voids during the COVID-19 pandemic: The case of an emerging economy

International business scholars have been urged to investigate how multinationals respond to grand challenges, one of which has been the COVID-19 pandemic. We provide insights into how corporations have mitigated social and economic externalities triggered by the pandemic in the presence of non-market institutional voids – policy failures in the provision of collective goods. We distinguish between corporate responses to long-term chronic voids and to acute voids that are contingent on crisis situations. We identify six categories of initiatives undertaken in Brazil by 55 Brazilian and foreign-owned multinationals. Due to their international experience, foreign multinationals appear to be better equipped than local ones to pursue standardized non-market initiatives, based on their technical capabilities and their established trust-based relationships with international foundations. This issue merits further investigation. We suggest that our analytical framework for understanding events and corporate responses in Brazil during the COVID-19 pandemic can be applied to many other emerging countries, and hence could be useful to policymakers, businesses, and other types of organizations in confronting acute crises in contexts where institutional failures are persistent. The ability of multinationals to alleviate sources of socio-economic disruption also advances the ongoing debate over the future role of the corporation in society.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1057/s42214-022-00141-0.

The socioeconomic burden of a diagnosis of cervical cancer in women in rural Uganda: findings from a descriptive qualitative study.

The aim of the study was to diagnose the socioeconomic burden and impact of a diagnosis of cervical cancer in rural women in the context of a low-resourced country, Uganda, through a descriptive qualitative enquiry. This was a multi-site descriptive qualitative inquiry, conducted at three hospice settings; Mobile Hospice Mbarara in the Southwest, Little Hospice Hoima in Midwest, and Hospice Africa Uganda Kampala in Central Uganda. A purposive sample of women with a histologically confirmed diagnosis of cervical cancer were recruited. Data were collected using open-ended audio-recorded interviews conducted in the native languages of the participants. Interviews were transcribed verbatim in English. Braun and Clarke's (2019) framework of thematic analysis was used. A total of 13 women, with mean age 49.2 years (range 29-71), participated in the study. All participants were of low socioeconomic status. The majority (84.6%) had advanced disease at diagnosis. A detailed reading of transcripts produced three major themes: (1) the impact of cervical cancer on women's relationships (2) the disrupted and impaired activities of daily living (ADLs), and (3) economic disruptions. A diagnosis of cervical cancer introduces significant socioeconomic disruptions in a woman's and her family's life. Cervical cancer causes disability, impairs the woman and her family's productivity and exacerbates levels of poverty in the home. High and expensive out-of-pocket expenditure on investigations, treatments and transport costs further compound the socioeconomic burden.

Addressing inequities in access to care among Indigenous peoples with chronic hepatitis C in Alberta, Canada

Indigenous peoples worldwide continue to suffer disproportionate health inequities resulting from ongoing and intergenerational colonial trauma, including psychological, social, physical, and spiritual effects. 1 Mitchell TL Maracle DT Post-traumatic stress and the health status of Aboriginal populations in Canada. Int J Indig Health. 2005; 2: 14-23 Google Scholar In Canada, contemporary colonial traumas include, but are not limited to, the displacement of Indigenous peoples (First Nations, Inuit, and Métis) from their land and resources, historical banning of cultural ceremony and language, forced removal and abuse of children via the residential school and child welfare systems, and the federal Indian Act (a paternalistic and racist imposition of colonial systems controlling access to food, land, resources, naming, health care, education, and even status as an Indigenous person). Although Canada is considered a wealthy nation, the continued impact of these abuses result in impoverished socioeconomic status and disruption of wellness for many Indigenous peoples. The compounding effect over successive generations has contributed to disproportionately higher rates of substance abuse, suicide, and many diseases, including liver disease resulting from chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, in these populations. 2 Mitchell T Arseneau C Colonial Trauma: Complex, continuous, collective, cumulative and compounding effects on the health of Indigenous peoples in Canada and beyond. Int J Indig Health. 2019; 14: 74-94 Crossref Google Scholar Health inequities in Indigenous peoples are often highlighted in health research without sufficient explanation of the role of systemic drivers, which further victimises or stigmatises Indigenous populations. 3 Fayed ST King A King M et al. In the eyes of Indigenous people in Canada: exposing the underlying colonial etiology of hepatitis C and the imperative for trauma-informed care. Can Liv J. 2018; 1: 115-129 Crossref Google Scholar In this Comment, we describe the creation and implementation of a co-design approach centred on respectful relationships with Indigenous communities in the province of Alberta, Canada, to address systemic and longstanding inequities regarding access to HCV care.

The Effect of COVID-19 on the Origins of Florida State Park Visitors and Online Reviewers

Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused substantial socioeconomic disruptions and affected travel behaviour at various geographic scales. Public parks were some of the few recreational spaces that people could visit while adhering to the COVID-19 mitigation measures such as social distancing, travel restrictions, or curfews. This study draws data from profiles of TripAdvisor and Yelp users who reviewed Florida state park as well as origins of state park visitors from SafeGraph patterns data to compare the spatial distribution of reviewer and visitor origins before (2019) and during (2020) the pandemic. Results show an increase in the proportion of reviewers and visitors from within the State of Florida during the pandemic as well as shorter distance between reviewer/visitor origin states and Florida. This reflects reduced mobility at the national scale due to COVID-19 related travel restrictions but also highlights the important role of outdoor recreational areas, such as parks, for local communities during such crises.

Urban resilience: A vague or an evolutionary concept?

• Despite years of research the concept of resilience remains ambiguous. • Ambiguities could lead to difficulties in theory and practice. • We address some of these ambiguities through a literature review. • Contextual issues and constant evolution are main reasons behind the ambiguities. • We propose a conceptual framework for better understanding of the concept. Considering the rapid urbanization trends in many parts of the world and the increasing consequences of climate change, more and more cities are at risk of natural disasters and other environmental, socio-economic, and political disruptions. To address these issues, resilience thinking has attracted the attention of a wide range of stakeholders. However, despite considerable attention to this concept and its frequent usage, resilience remains ambiguous with diverse interpretations in policy discussions and academic debates about cities. Since such vague interpretations would lead to difficulties in theory and practice, the present study aims to clarify some of these concepts by providing a comprehensive review focused on resilience features and comparing different perspectives regarding urban resilience. The study results showed that the main reason behind such ambiguities is that resilience has undergone fundamental changes since its inception, and recent approaches to resilience are generally based on the non-equilibrium model of resilience. There are three main dimensions, including systems, agents, and institutions, as well as three main approaches to urban resilience, including recovery, adaptation, and transformation. This study's conceptual framework of urban resilience provides scholars and policymakers with a more transparent and comprehensive picture of urban resilience and helps them make better-informed decisions.

Possible Relationship Between the Oral and Gut Microbiome, Caries Development, and Obesity in Children During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought health damage and socioeconomic disruptions, together with lifestyle disorders around the world. Children are one of the most commonly affected, mainly due to social isolation and changes in eating habits and physical activities. This way, the risk of weight gain and obesity is possibly enhanced, as well as poor oral hygiene conditions and early childhood caries (ECC) development during the lockdown. In children under 6 years of age, ECC is defined as carious lesions in one or more primary teeth, with or without cavitation. Importantly, alterations in the oral microbiome caused by changes in children lifestyles have much more than a local impact on oral tissues, interplaying with the gut microbiome and influencing systemic environments. Recent studies have been exploring the oral health conditions, eating habits, and weight gain in the childhood population during the COVID-19 pandemic; however, there is a lack of information concerning the association among oral and gut microbiome, dental caries, and obesity in the COVID-19 era. In this context, this review aimed at analyzing a possible relationship between the oral and gut microbiome, caries, and obesity in children during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Mind the Gap—A Socio-Economic Analysis on Price Developments of Green Hydrogen, Synthetic Fuels, and Conventional Energy Carriers in Germany

In recent years, the development of energy prices in Germany has been frequently accompanied by criticism and warnings of socio-economic disruptions. Especially with respect to the electricity sector, the debate on increasing energy bills was strongly correlated with the energy system transition. However, whereas fossil fuels have rapidly increased in price recently, renewable substitutes such as green hydrogen and synthetic fuels also enter the markets at comparatively high prices. On the other hand, the present fossil fuel supply is still considered too low-priced by experts because societal greenhouse gas-induced environmental impact costs are not yet compensated. In this study, we investigate the development of the price gap between conventional energy carriers and their renewable substitutes until 2050 as well as a suitable benchmark price, incorporating the societal costs of specific energy carriers. The calculated benchmark prices for natural gas (6.3 ct kWh−1), petrol (9.9 ct kWh−1), and grey hydrogen from steam methane reformation (12 ct kWh−1) are nearly 300% above the actual prices for industry customers in 2020, but below the price peaks of early 2022. In addition, the price gap between conventional fuels and green hydrogen will be completely closed before 2050 for all investigated energy carriers. Furthermore, prognosed future price developments can be considered rather moderate compared to historic and especially to the recent price dynamics in real terms. A gradual implementation of green hydrogen and synthetic fuels next to increasing CO2 prices, however, may temporarily lead to further increasing expenses for energy, but can achieve lower price levels comparable to those of 2020 in the long term.

Modelling the impact of perfect and imperfect vaccination strategy against SARS CoV-2 by assuming varied vaccine efficacy over India

BackgroundThe outbreak of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has swiftly spread globally and caused public health and socio-economic disruption in many countries. An epidemiological modelling studies in the susceptible-infectious-removed (SIR) has played an important role for making effective public health policy to mitigate the spread of COVID-19. The aim of the present study is to investigate the optimal vaccination strategy to control the COVID-19 pandemic in India. MethodsWe have applied compartment mathematical model susceptible-vaccination-infectious-removed (SVIR) with different range of vaccine efficacy scenarios and predicted the population to be covered for vaccination per day in India as well as state level was performed. ResultsThe model assumed that a vaccine has 100% efficacy, predicted that >5 million populace to be vaccinated per day to flatten the epidemic curve in India. Similarly, different vaccination mechanisms such as ‘all-or-nothing’ (AoN) and leaky vaccines does not have potential discordance in their effectiveness at higher efficacies (>70%). However, AoN vaccine was found to be marginally effective than leaky at lower efficacies (<70%) when administered at the higher coverage strategies. Further state level analyses were performed and it was found that 0.3, 0.3, 0.2 and 1 million vaccinations required per day in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala and Maharashtra as it assumes that the vaccine efficacy is 70%. ConclusionThe proposed modelling approach shows a range of assumptions on the efficacy of vaccine which helps the health authorities to prioritize the vaccination strategies to prevent the transmission as well as disease.

The vagaries of variables: Towards a standardised approach for variable selection in spatial crime research

Studies using the social disorganisation theory as a framework to explain crime are commonplace globally. There are numerous inconsistencies however in the operationalisation of the theory with researchers using a plethora of different variables to represent the central tenets of the theory namely socio-economic deprivation, family disruption, residential mobility and ethnic heterogeneity. These inconsistencies bring into question the validity and reliability of the results especially when the selection of variables varies so considerably across local and international contexts. In this study we show how the use of different variables to operationalise these tenets can produce vastly different results when examining the causes of crime in the township of Khayelitsha in South Africa. We conclude by arguing for the potential standardisation of variable selection in spatial crime research using the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) global indicators as a guiding framework. We believe this is particularly pertinent if researchers are interested in undertaking cross-national comparative studies of crime.