This paper is intended as a tentative exploration of some ways in which the particular intellectual and cultural climate of ante-bellum America affected both the adjustment of middle-class men and women to one another and the development of a more acute self-consciousness among women about their identity and their role in society. The process of modernization gather- ing momentum in eighteenth-century America and Western Europe contributed two important aspects to that mental climate: first, a "republi- can" ideology which, not in spite of, but because of its commitment to liberty and equality made it extremely difficult to know exactly what to do with human beings perceived as ineradicably and by nature "Other" and unequal—women (and in the United States, blacks); second, an acute awareness of, and anxiety about, sexual identity as something, apparently, no longer to be taken for granted, but needing constant definition and confirmation. From the 1820's a third development impinged upon these anxieties: an intense preoccupation, fostered both by Romanticism and the Revival, with the Self, with self-examination, self-development, the expansion of individual potentialities towards a constantly receding horizon of human "growth." Finally, what Page Smith calls the "Protestant passion" to turn the energies of the redeemed and newly-aware self onto the social redemption of the world issued in a great wave of reform. All of these factors had a profound effect on the ways in which men and women conceived their relationships to one another. All, in turn, were themselves bound up with problems of sexual tensions and sexual definition.1
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