Social Foundations Research Articles

Toward a Social History of Modern Chinese Warlordism

Abstract The social impact of modern Chinese warlordism on China’s modern development has attracted little attention in past scholarship, which generally has been more interested in warlordism as a military-political system. This article argues, however, that warlordism developed within a social context and had a major impact on Chinese society, and this in turn suggests the usefulness of applying a social history approach to the study of the warlord period. This article makes a preliminary effort to advance this goal by identifying three main areas that could provide a framework for research on the social history of Chinese warlordism. First, the article examines debates over the social (or class) foundations of warlord power. Second, the article explores the ways in which warlordism changed the social status of military men and created opportunities for social mobility. Finally, the article emphasizes the need to look beyond the political impact of Chinese warlordism to show the social and economic effects that arose from the military conflicts of the warlord era.

ПРАГМАТИКА ДИСКУРСИВНЫХ ЖАНРОВ ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ И ВВЕДЕНИЕ К ФРАНЦУЗСКОМУ И РУССКОМУ ФИЛОСОФСКИМ СЛОВАРЯМ: СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ

В статье речь идет о прагматике дискурсивных жанров предисловие и введение к русскому и французскому философским словарям. Доказывается, что презентационной составляющей введения и предисловия является продвижение словаря как жанра научной коммуникации. Сравнительный анализ паратекстовых образований в русском и французском языке показывает, что коммуникативная стратегия информирования характерна для обоих изданий, вместе с тем для презентации достижений в области отечественной и зарубежной философии используются различные способы авторской самопрезентации. The pre-textual part of any published work is especially important for the readers and includes pragmatic purpose of the content explication and prior notification to the reader about the edition. Such genres contribute to the consideration of the publications providing any preface or introduction as a knowledge product in the publishing industry. The objectives of the article include identifying the linguo-pragmatic features of discourse genres such as preface and introduction to the Russian and French lexicographic practice based on the text-typological approach. The relevance of the study lies in the fact that philosophical discourse reveals not only linguistic, but also communicative features in the scientific communication. Furthermore, the features can exercise a certain degree of influence over a reader in conjunction with the language, that can be considered as a keeper of scientific experience and social foundations. A comparative analysis has illustrated that using paratextual units to inform the reader about the particular book characteristics is a common feature of Russian and French philosophical discourse. Moreover, the prospective orientation of the texts is anchored in the semantics of the terms of Preface and Introduction. The article argues that the pragmatic purpose of the preface is to familiarize the reader with the content of the published work. As for the introduction, the main 198 Сравнительное языкознание purpose of this pre-textual unit is to improve perceptions of the information drawing on the author’s concept and theoretical analysis. The result of the research demonstrates the description of the main communication strategies and tactics, indicating the linguistic and pragmatic features of the discourse genres such as preface and introduction. It was revealed that these pre-textual units are based on a stylistic effect of dialogicity, which includes the use of rhetorical questions and exclamation sentences. Terminological language is actively used as a reflection of the scientific picture of «philosophy». Furthermore, it is proved that the promotion of the dictionary as a scientific genre is a part of the presentation of the texts, evidence of which can be seen in the use of ameliorative assessment of the publications. Various ways of the author’s self-presentation are submitted as a presentation of achievements in the field of philosophy. The tactics of explanation, comparison and the special characteristics of the edition innovation are presented in the Russian dictionary. Whereas the authors’ competence and authority is emphasized in the French dictionary, which also indicates their scientific status and presents detailed information about their workplace. French philosophers actively use the tactics of the use of authoritative source or opinion as the basis of philosophical reflection.

Investigation of the influence of social structure on ideology in the works of Pierre Bourdieu

The article discusses the main results of Pierre Bourdieu's research work on the reflection of social structure in ideology. The author described in detail such aspects of the topic as the mechanism of reproduction of the social structure through the social interaction of the main one on the habitus and the capital available to the subjects, which they seek to monopolize. It was noted that, according to Burde, the ideological field reproduces the social structure in an unrecognizable form. Attention is also paid to the issues of attitude to history, reflection in the worldview of the real and ideal, the social foundations of leadership, the indispensable conditions of which is compliance with the behavior of the leader to the habitus of the group. The main conclusions of the study are the following. According to Bourdieu, the ideological field reproduces the social structure in an unrecognizable form. The mechanism of assimilation is twofold: firstly, by occupying a certain position in the social hierarchy of classes, the agent will reproduce it in the ideological field; secondly, the struggle in the ideological field reproduces in euphemized forms the economic and political struggle between classes. Among other things, the ideology reflects not only the attitudes of the ruling elite, but also professional creators who seek to take advantage of the delegation of authority to define the social world. Bourdieu's work devoted to the representation of the past (history) is also analyzed as a reflection of the present and an instrument of ideological struggle.

Exploring the role of social capital mechanisms in cooperative resilience

We contribute to research on cooperative resilience by examining how their main advantage of social foundations may facilitate the assembly of resilience capabilities. Drawing from the social capital literature, we focus on the strategies and activities of a nationally known rural cooperative in Indonesia to reveal social capital mechanisms, specifically channeling and targeting social capital, that underlie diverse sets of resilience capabilities. By conceptualizing cooperative resilience according to cooperatives’ dual objectives of economic and social viability, we build an empirically grounded framework that encompasses social capital-driven mechanisms that underlie cooperative resilience. Economically, strengthening social capital (channeling) may result in organizational transparency and collaborative work, while widening social networks (targeting) develops velocity and flexibility. Socially, both mechanisms lead to the emergence of individual-level resilience capabilities. Our study informs business research on resilience by conceptualizing it in the context of cooperatives and shedding light on its underlying social capital-driven mechanisms.

The war against sustainable development theory: Public interest as the ethical order for the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals

AbstractThe concept of environmentally sustainable development (ESD) has its origins in 1987, with the publication of the World Commission on Environment and Development’s (WCED) landmark report, Our Common Future. Drawing on earlier research I have done, I re‐evaluate the ongoing challenges ESD faces as a theory of development given fractious debates about development from opposing interests. My original research identified a substantial divide in support for a WCED‐styled theory of sustainable development and, alternatively, for that promulgated by business‐as‐usual economic growth advocates. I showed that the developmental changes advocated by the WCED would be vigorously opposed or resisted by vested interests. Some 30 years later, opposition and resistance continue. The purpose of this commentary is to examine aspects of this divide with regard to prospects for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. I aim to discuss prospects for implementing the SDGs by that year because the goals provide a context and potential measure of how sustainable development will fare as a theory. Three questions are posed to examine different attitudes to economic, social, and environmental policy fields. Thereafter, I conclude that environmental foundations of development address the agency of polluter pays, resource user pays, precautionary principle, and environmental standards regulation; economic foundations address economic growth, productivity, and competitiveness; and social foundations address social inclusion via human rights. I argue that all need to be systematically integrated into policy making for development to be sustainable; this means making the environmental foundations of sustainable development operational by incorporating them in the decision centres of business strategy and public policy. Measuring performance to address SDGs provides a sound place to start operationalising this integration process.

Liberal Humanism in Galsworthy’s Plays the silver Box, Strife, The Skin Game and Justice

John Galsworthy is a British writer focused on composition with reformist enthusiasm. His plays are known as 'Tragi-Comedy' examining his contemporary social issues and expecting potential arrangements from his crowd. His social cognizance and fighting demeanour towards the wrongs winning in his time has made him a craftsman with significant mankind and his basic disposition towards bigotry, obliviousness, deception, oppression, strange notion, and the remainder of the social variations in his plays affirm his stand as an ethical craftsman with humanistic worries.Hence, this paper endeavours to follow the humanistic worries in Galsworthy's emotional works. His assault is coordinated on the visual deficiency of the legal framework, racial bias and prideful bias, hallucination and various indecencies that plague the indispensable of our life. His objective viewpoint and unprejudiced treatment of the issue provide us with the undistorted standpoint of the basic shortcoming imbued in the general set of laws. The plays TheSilver Box, Strife, The Skin Game and Justice are analysed based on humanism to bring Galsworthy’s concern towards humanism. This paper centres around his humanistic conviction that man is intrinsically great yet the social foundations have frequently exploited man and prevented his endurance and progress.

Examining Mine Action�s �peaceability� potential through everyday narratives and practices in Somaliland

The way in which societies conceptualise peace, and therefore peacebuilding, is dependent on various factors, including the society itself, its history, cultural and social foundations, the legacies of violence and peacebuilding initiatives. Drawing on interviews with various constituents in Somaliland, this article will demonstrate how bottom-up narratives and understandings of peace and peacebuilding have been shaped by the legacy of war and shared history of the reconciliation process, which was led by the elders. Similarly, this conceptualisation of peace defines what activities are considered as peacebuilding. However, the extent of this conceptualisation does not extend to mine action; an activity that was initiated by the elders during the post-war reconciliation process, and whose outcomes, such as facilitating mobility, safety and security, were outlined as peace indicators by those interviewed. Thus, while mine action has intrinsic peacebuilding potential, it is not conceptualised as peacebuilding by either international or local peacebuilders. This paper therefore seeks to critically examine this limitation. It employs Goodhand & Hulme�s (2000) concept of a peace audit, an approach to critically look at the way in which an intervention is undertaken to assess how this has raised or lowered the probability of peace. Beyond the history, using the peaceability approach, the article analyses the extent to which there are endowments of �peace capital� accrued or undermined by the sector�s everyday activities. It concludes that the �everyday� actions of the mine action actors contribute to the way in which local communities comprehended mine action interventions through the daily activities of the actors on the ground, their contrasting lifestyles, values and behaviour.

Hygiene and disinfection measures for monkeypox virus infections.

In Germany, recommendations on infection prevention and control of current virus outbreaks are given as communications by the Association for Applied Hygiene e.V. (VAH) together with the joint Disinfectant Commission of the German Association for the Control of Virus Diseases e.V. (DVV) and the Society of Virology* (GfV). The DVV was founded in 1954 in response to the ongoing threat to the population from polio and was given its current name in 1977. The DVV is supported by the Federal Ministry of Health, the Ministries of Health of the Federal States, scientific societies, as well as social foundations and organisations. Private individuals cannot be members of the DVV. The Society of Virology e.V. (GfV) is a scientific society for all virological fields in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and is thus the largest virological society in Europe. With numerous commissions, guidelines and statements, it is the authoritative contact for research, healthcare and politics. The joint commission "Virus Disinfection" of these scientific societies focuses on the efficacy of chemical disinfection procedures against viruses. The VAH bundles the expertise of scientific societies and experts on infection prevention and is particularly committed to the quality assurance of hygiene measures. With the VAH disinfectant list, the association provides the standard reference for the selection of high-quality disinfection procedures. This disinfectant list has a tradition of more than 60 years in Germany. The original German version of this document was published in August 2022 and has now been made available to the international professional public in English. The document contains recommendations on hygiene and disinfection measures for monkeypox virus infections. Disinfectants against monkeypox must have at least proven efficacy against enveloped viruses (active against enveloped viruses); products with the efficacy ranges "limited virucidal activity" and "virucidal" can also be used. The disinfectant list of the VAH or the disinfectant list of the Robert Koch Institute are available for the selection of products. Especially in the case of contamination with crust or scab material, it should be noted that protein contamination can have a protective or stabilising effect on monkeypox. Therefore, cleaning - before disinfection - should always be carried out in this situation. Preventive measures such as vaccination and hygiene in the vicinity of people with monkeypox must be taken to prevent transmission to small children, pregnant women or people with a pronounced immune deficiency.

Development of the Caucasian Borderland by Russian Empire (Late 18th — Early 60s of the 19th Centuries)

In this article the subject of research is the process of turning the Caucasian borderland in part of the territory of the Empire during the last quarter of 18th — the early 60s of 19th centuries, the settlement and economic development of Caucasus and Ciscaucasia, the creation of material resources for operating in the region by Russian troops. The methodology of this study is based on historical-genetic and comparative-historical methods, which allowed us to consider the historical dynamics of the process of creating social and economic foundations for the spread of Russian power in the Caucasus border region. As conclusions and results, we can conclude that the objects created during the development of the territory of the Caucasian border area include villages, villages and cities, hospitals, anti — epidemic cordons, equipped Caucasian mineral waters, active agriculture-arable farming and cattle breeding, as well as roads and post offices. All these efforts of the Russian authorities made it possible to turn the Caucasian borderland into a part of the empire. The field of application of the obtained results can be educational and scientific works on the history of the Caucasus region and the history of the marginal policy of the Russian Empire.

In Union There Is Strength: Philadelphia in the Age of Urban Consolidation by Andrew Heath

Reviewed by: In Union There Is Strength: Philadelphia in the Age of Urban Consolidation by Andrew Heath Catherine McNeur In Union There Is Strength: Philadelphia in the Age of Urban Consolidation. By Andrew Heath. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019. 287 pp. Illustrations, notes, index. $49.95.) When we consider the expansion of city boundaries from a bird's-eye view, it can seem like a natural, even inevitable, response to population growth. If the city limits were a belt, it needed to be loosened to encompass the larger urban belly. Depending on the city and the scenario, we might even smirk at the idea of officials strategically embracing rural districts and calling them urban in hopes of seeming demographically larger than rival cities. In his book In Union There Is Strength, Andrew Heath does a fantastic job of showing how Philadelphia's Consolidation Act of 1854 was anything but inevitable. Over a period of a few weeks in the summer of 1844, Philadelphia was shaken by riots that pitted nativist Protestants against Catholic immigrants, with the city and a local militia struggling to gain control. These [End Page 98] uprisings inspired many of Philadelphia's leaders and bourgeois residents to look hard at the shaky social foundation of the city. It was past time, they felt, to confront issues of policing and governance. While the riots were notable, every election involved violent shows of partisanship in the streets. Even groups of volunteer police and firefighters acted like gangs, battling for control of territories. While some Philadelphians enjoyed engaging in this rowdy chaos, others saw in it a desperate need for change. Heath's book centers around the visions that White, powerful men had for Philadelphia's future and how they sculpted it in their image, seeing consolidation of the larger region into the city proper as a way to centralize control, refine the culture of politics, and make Philadelphia more cosmopolitan. While men from bourgeois and radical backgrounds saw different origins for the problems plaguing Philadelphia, their solution was ultimately the same: consolidation. Heath rarely touches on issues of race and gender, so readers will perhaps feel the absence of the perspectives of Black and female Philadelphians, let alone what they stood to gain or lose from the new boundaries. While the consolidators saw themselves as modernizers, Heath is careful to note that this is not a linear story of modernization. Like the United States more broadly during the mid-nineteenth century, Philadelphia was politically and socially fragmented, which impacted the ways people considered the pros and cons of expanding the city limits. Heath works assiduously to make sense of the messy politics of the city at this moment, weaving in urban design and the central role that real estate played in visions for a unified Philadelphia. Where Heath really soars, though, is in placing Philadelphia within its larger national context. While Philadelphia's leaders considered the city's expansion and what that would mean for its prosperity and politics, national leaders debated the impact of expanding the nation while struggling to keep it united. Throughout the book, Heath does a fantastic job of tracing the cultural climate that embraced growth politics as a solution for all sorts of problems, local and national. Ultimately, the 1870s would show the limits of growth politics, as consolidation failed to alleviate the social upheaval that came with the 1873 economic depression. Still, the Consolidation Act of 1854 and Heath's account of it reveal the hopes of Philadelphia's leaders at a moment of dramatic change that continues to echo in the city we know today. [End Page 99] Catherine McNeur Portland State University Copyright © 2022 Historical Society of Pennsylvania

Тринадцать лет наблюдений за миграцией хищных птиц в Батуми: наблюдения и их значение для охраны пернатых хищников России

Since 2008 Batumi Raptor Count (BRC) project has been monitoring autumn migration of birds of prey in the eastern African-Palearctic flyway in southwest Georgia on the eastern coast of the Black Sea. Every autumn this flyway is used by a significant proportion of the global population of such raptor species as Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), Montagu’s Harrier (Circus pygargus), Pallid Harrier (C. macrourus) and Marsh Harrier (C. aeruginosus). At least 1% of the global population of 10 raptor species migrates through the Batumi flyway. Batumi Raptor Count is of vital importance for the development of ecotourism in the region, creating an economic, political, and social foundation for raptor conservation and contributing to a reduction of widespread illegal hunting. The project also works to introduce ecology and conservation into local schools and higher education programs. This manuscript’s aim is to summarise the 13 years of the BRC. It contains a detailed description of a typical migration season in one of the most important bottlenecks for raptor migration globally. The current manuscript is loosely based on the publication in British Birds summarising the history of the BRC (Hoekstra et al., 2020). The main difference, apart from publishing it in Russian, is in taking into account the data obtained in 2021 and emphasising the importance of the autumn migration monitoring in Batumi for the conservation and research of the Russian raptor populations.

Competition and cooperation of interests in legal policy and law

The article deals with the problem of social foundations of law and legal policy. It is emphasized that the legal policy will be able to fulfil its tasks only by achieving a high level of its scientific validity, which implies its focus on a deep study of the social context of law. Attention is focused on the determining role of competition (conflict) and cooperation (solidarity) of social interests for law and the legal policy pursued by the state. The conflict and solidarity nature of law and legal means is stated. It is noted that when dealing with conflicts, law operates with restrictive legal means, to maintain cooperation relations in society, law acts with the help of permissions and other positive legal means. With regard to these styles of legal regulation, the concepts of conflict law and the law of cooperation are used, respectively. The significance of the mechanisms of coordination of interests in law-making policy and law is established. The importance of involving civil society institutions in the state-legal construction and the need to conduct sociological research in law, which will allow law and legal policy to acquire the necessary state of quality and efficiency, is determined.

Changing Community Social Foundations in Today’s World Amidst Urbanization: The case of Russia, China and Vietnam

Changing Community Social Foundations in Today’s World Amidst Urbanization: The case of Russia, China and Vietnam

Neural, psychological, and social foundations of collective memory: Implications for common mnemonic processes, agency, and identity.

Recent advances in memory research within psychology and neuroscience have contributed to a shift from examining memory through an individualistic lens towards a growing recognition of potential social and collective influences on mnemonic processes. This shift is prominently illustrated by continuing research on collective memory. Through a scoping literature review, we identify three crucial components defining collective memory: memories held in common across individuals within a social group, which are centrally important to group identity, and which impact significantly on perceived group agency. This review attempts to distil and organize empirical evidence into (i) neural, (ii) psychological, and (iii) social foundations of collective memory, while considering the reflexive relationship between common memory, identity, and agency (CIA). We conceptualize collective memory as based on neuropsychological substrates, influenced by social processes, and extended to societal, historical, and political domains, driven by human sociality. To engage the complexity of, and shed light on, numerous remaining questions surrounding collective memory, future research should embrace a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach focused on issues of common memory, identity, and identity.

Posle američke "izuzetnosti" - "Tukididova zamka" XXI veka

In the centre of this interdisciplinary investigation is the issue of primary political, philosophical and social foundations of the project of liberal hegemony - as well as real-political end of this discourse in the 21stcentury. The politics of interventionism and human rights is opposed to the politics of sovereignty in such a way that the structural difference between the 20th century Western elitism and the perspective of the multipolar world is the differentiation between hierarchical systems of power and politics of equality. The constitutive part of these processes is "the rebirth of history" through which a more just order is to be established and political consequences for the world will significantly depend on whether crypto-idealistic i.e., "Wilsonian school" will prevail in the USA. Therefore, the issue whether it is possible to avoid "Thucydides Trap" in the 21st century refers to the difference between "necessary America" and "independent America". Multipolarity as the basis of true multilateralism appears as a potentially new model for the implementation of the politics of sovereign equality.

Vojislav Ilić: The Poetry of Contradictions and Synthesis

This article deals with the correlation of the work of Vojislav Ilić, the most signifi cant Serbian poet of the late nineteenth century, with various literary trends: classicism, romanticism, realism, and the Parnassian-Symbolist school. Various points of view have been expressed on this issue for a number of years. V. Ilić is recognised mainly as a romantic with some authors noting inherent features of classicism, aestheticism, and symbolism in his work (Dragiša Živković and Dragiša Vitošević), some noting a closeness to realism and a break with romanticism (Jovan Deretić), and others recognising and at the same time denying Ilic’s belonging to any of these trends (Milorad Pavić). The syntheticity of Ilic’s talent is also noted, although the question of its nature is not considered (Regina Friedrikhovna Doronina). In this article, the starting point is the romantic principle in Ilić’s poetry and, owing to the spirit of the times, the further gradual overcoming of his romantic aspirations. Rejecting the subjectivity of romanticism, the poet turns to the early experience of his father, the famous poet Jovan Ilić, that is, to the experience of “objective lyrics” of the 1820s–40s. The appeal to antiquity, to the cult of tangible beauty, the perfection of the art form brought V. Ilić closer to the Parnassians, which naturally led the Serbian poet to symbolism. At the same time, V. Ilić, in the spirit of the modern development of national literature, also turns to realism, including “folkloric”, to a critique of the social foundations of the surrounding reality, to the social landscape. However, in general, the landscape descriptive lyrics of V. Ilić, often perceived as a manifestation of realistic tendencies, mean at the same time a return to the ancient idyll, and thus the approach to poetry of the Parnassians, who were close to the static idyllic landscape. In the landscape poetry of V. Ilić, his highest creative achievement, a synthesis of subjective and objective principles, modernity and antiquity, national traditions and experience of modern Western European literature, is manifested.

СОВРЕМЕННЫЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ СОЦИАЛЬНО-ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОГО ПРОТИВОДЕЙСТВИЯ РЕЛИГИОЗНЫМ УГРОЗАМ В РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

The artic丨e ana丨yzes the inf丨uence that modern re丨igions have on contemporary Russian reality. The authors argue that in the confessional space of the country there are different types of religious associations, which have a multidirectional impact on society, due to the origins of some in the globalizing culture and others with a long history of development on the territory of Russia. The object of the study is the social security discourse in the Russian Federation. The subject of the study is religious threats in the discourse of social security in the Russian Federation. The aim of the article is to show the specifics of the Russian confessional space, in which a battle for confessional influence is taking place that goes beyond secularization and takes a form that actualizes the contradiction between traditional religions as a bastion of social security and non-traditional religions as a threat to the foundations of Russian society. The authors carry out the task of explaining the policy of the authorities of the Russian Federation, who direct the society to organize opposition to the activity of non-traditional religious associations, which is understood as a threat to traditional social foundations. The significance of the article is determined by the recommendation to protect the rights of all believers, including members of non-traditional religious associations, to freely practice their chosen religion. The methodological basis of the study is the historical and systematic approaches used in the analysis of the modern religious impact on the consciousness of believers. The authors have used structural-functional analysis, comparison, problematization, analysis, synthesis as well as a set of philosophical methods, including as a basis the method of structural-functional analysis, supplemented by scientific methods of history, sociology, ethnography, linguistics, and also general scientific methods, such as comparison, conceptualization, problematization, modeling, analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, abstraction, ascending from the abstract to the concrete

The Social Foundations of Democratic Norms

The Social Foundations of Democratic Norms

METHODS EMPOWERMENT SOUL ENTREPRENEURSHIP OF YATIM AND DHUAFA ORPHANAGE HAFIZIL YATAMU SABUNGAN JAE PADANGSIDIMPUAN

This Yatamu Hafizil Orphanage is a social foundation that educates and fosters entrepreneurial skills for orphans and poor people with social problems. Like economic capacity, left behind by dead father and mother. The theory explains, financial, entrepreneurial spirit, thinking, creative spirit, innovative are the core requirements for empowering the entrepreneurial spirit. Unlike the orphanage and poor people in Sabungan, Jae accepts children to be empowered for their entrepreneurial spirit at no cost. This is contrary to the requirements for empowering an entrepreneurial spirit. entrepreneurship requires sufficient capital, a strong physical condition, has a creative and innovative mindset. This research is a descriptive qualitative research. The data sources used are primary and secondary. The informant retrieval method used was purposive sampling, while the data collection techniques were observation, interview and documentation. The instrument used in the interview was a focus group discussion. The analysis of the validity of the data used was source triangulation. As a result, there are several methods of empowering the entrepreneurial spirit of the orphanage and poor people. Namely, snowballing lessons, meet the guests, town meetings, whatsapp conferences.

About system legislative viruses and social foundations of creating a new system of the Criminal Code of Ukraine

The article contains critical remarks about the draft of the new system of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, which is presented for discussion by its developers and is characterized by the presence of many new provisions. It is established that this system has significant shortcomings, which are associated with the incorrect reflection in the content of criminal law norms of the essential social features of crimes.
 To identify such shortcomings in the system of criminal law, the concept of "system legislative viruses" is highlighted and the need to have protection against such viruses in the system is substantiated. The necessity to distinguish between the legislative virus, the negative consequences of which in the form of human rights violations are local in nature, and the system legislative virus, the negative consequences of which are large-scale, is substantiated. Legislative viruses that result in violation of the principle of proportionality between punishment and social characteristics of acts are analyzed.
 Proposals for improving the system of the Criminal Code of Ukraine have been formulated. In particular, they concern the use of the category "public danger", which must perform a human rights function in the system of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. It is proposed to classify crimes using the social values ​​they encroach on and the extent of the damage that has been or may be caused. Emphasis is placed on the need to allocate at the law enforcement level the severity (danger) of the crime: 1) with particularly mitigating circumstances, 2) with mitigating circumstances, 3) without mitigating and aggravating circumstances, 4) with aggravating circumstances and 6) with especially aggravating circumstances. The court must impose penalties based on these degrees and the legal restrictions associated with them.
 The necessity of providing legal certainty on the social basis of criminal liability and restriction of rights for committing a crime, as well as on the legislative assessment of cases of simultaneous commission of several crimes and the rules of their qualification is substantiated.
 It is proposed to supplement the Criminal Code of Ukraine with Article 2-1 "Rule of Law", which will ensure justice in cases of errors made by the legislator and in other cases where there is a discrepancy between formal legal requirements and social characteristics of the crime.