Social Division Of Labor Research Articles

Measuring Equality Between the Sexes

Measures of the status of women and their potential for equality with men may be derived from women's position in five major spheres of activity — sexual relationships, reproduction, homemaking and child‐care, economic production, and political decision making— and from the degree of functional independence among these spheres of activity. Some commonly used statistical indicators of the status of women in the United States from 1900 through the early 1970s are evaluated as measures of progress toward equality between the sexes, defined here as the abolition of the social division of labor based on gender, and some new measures are proposed.

The Influence of the Social Division of Labor on the Formation of the Comprehensively Developed Man

Material and nonmaterial cultural values are an objective reality of the social division of labor, the embodiment of its qualitatively different types corresponding to different human needs. For this reason, the question of forming the comprehensively developed man in communist society is also a question of the social division of labor. The conditions of labor in developed socialist society are a result of the worldwide historical development of social practice, the subject of which is not the individual but rather the creativity of the masses, combined social labor. In this regard, the social division of labor itself, in the process of development toward communism, should be viewed not simply as a condition for the production of items the nature of whose consumption differs, but primarily as the production of the individuals themselves — their abilities and endowments for creative, socially useful labor.

Studying the Structure of the Soviet Economy by Means of the Data of Ex Post Interbranch Balances

In view of the enormous scope of communist construction in our country, the development and intensification of the social division of labor, and the expansion and increased complexity of interbranch and interregional relations, exceptional importance attaches to the further improvement of the branch structure of social production, the determination and establishment of the most rational economic proportions, and the increased scientific substantiation of national economic plans. In large measure the growth rate of social production and the raising of its effectiveness, plus the successful fulfillment of the socioeconomic problems confronting our society at the present stage, depend on the correct solution of these problems.

Le passage à la production industrialisée par la coopération et la situation nouvelle de l'agriculture dans l'économie nationale de la République Démocratique d'Allemagne (RDA)

The Industrialization, via the cooperative movement, of Farming in the Democratic Republic of Germany - In spite of the decreasing amount of vegetable matter in foodstuffs, vegetable production has to meet increasing demands for it provides the raw material for animal production and for the animal feeding-stuffs industry as well as for the food-stuffs industry. Industrialized production in agriculture is possible only through a social organization of the production - concentration, specialization, an increasing division of labour between the firms participating in the production of agricultural goods, their processing, stocking and distribution. Vegetable and animal productions are now links in the chain of cooperation. Vertical cooperation has become the rule in the relations between farming and its suppliers and distributors and between sub-sections and the various levels of farming. This socialist restructuration has made the industrialization of production both possible and necessary. Farming has overcome the backwardness inherited from the production methods of individual farmers and has become one sector of the national economy with modern means of production, with the modern organization, management and planning required by the application of science and technology to production processes, and above all, with an abundance of workers (labourers and cooperative farmers) who are highly qualified and specialized. Farming, as a sector of the national economy, is divided into two main branches - vegetable production (including market-gardening) and animal production. Several measures help to preserve and improve the conditions of growth and maturation of the plants, and the fertility of the soil. These long-term measures, characteristic of the development of socialist agriculture, contribute to a lasting improvement in the conditions of farm labour. However the level of concentration attained in socialist farm businesses does not yet make a rational use of the complex of machine's and technologies possible. At the end of 1973, 6.4 % of the total number of cattle and pigs were reared in industrial farms. Industrial meat production units organize and balance fodder consumption, production costs and daily weight gain. (A State business, the Eberswalde production unit obtains excellent results with a capacity of 100.000 place's for pig-fattening). But the need to make full use of these capacities to increase animal production does not make a rapid adaptation towards this form of specialized business desirable. The social division of labour leads to a reduction in the amount of social work necessary for food production as a whole and a rapid reduction in the amount of labour used in farming itself, and the relative stagnation of the animal feeding-stuffs and processing industries. The net cash income of the population has progressed much more quickly than the expenditure on foodstuffs although the latter are of higher quality. The population therefore has more money for other purposes - industrial goods, education, culture and services (but more than half the active workers producing consumer goods are still employed in the farming-feeding-stuffs industry). We have seen that the relations between the agri-industrial complex, businesses, combinats, unions, with the suppliers, trade and consumers are organized on a vertical cooperation basis. The results obtained make it pos'sible and necessary, in the interests of society, of the firms and the workers, to improve labour conditions, the standard of living (particularly income as compared with the quantity and quality of the labour supplied), the proportion of working- hours/hours of rest, and the possibilities of acquiring higher qualifications linked to the assurance of greater security and improved promotion hopes. Improved conditions of life and work are an indication of a powerful driving force, capable of developing, reinforcing and stimulating the initiative and the responsibility of the workers with regard to their work.

Certain Theoretical Problems in Polytechnical Education

The process of communist construction is, at the same time, the process of forming a comprehensively and harmoniously developed individual. Therefore, the makeup [oblik] of the person of the future incorporates and directly expresses genuinely contemporary traits born in those new forms and modes of intercourse that develop in the process of overcoming the vestiges of the bourgeois system for the social division of labor. And only by revealing the necessary conditions, means, and methods of overcoming vestiges of the social division of labor in practical terms do we find and substantiate the conditions, means, and methods for the practical formation (education) of the person of the future.

The Long Shadow of Work: Education, the Family, and the Reproduction of the Social Division of Labor

The Long Shadow of Work: Education, the Family, and the Reproduction of the Social Division of Labor

The Effect of the Transport Factor on the Location of Export Production in Comecon Member Nations

With the development of socialist economic integration, the effectiveness of the location of export production of COMECON member nations depends to a considerable degree on the transport factor. The implementation of the Comprehensive Program for Socialist Economic Integration and the growing foreign economic relations between COMECON countries on this basis are drawing into export production an ever greater number of industrial enterprises, the rational location of which from the standpoint of the transport factor is the basic source for raising the economic effectiveness of social production in the face of the further intensification of the international socialist division of labor.

Certain Principles in Determining the Place of USSR Agriculture in the International Division of Labor

The general prospects for development of the social division of labor and of economic collaboration of COMECON member nations, outlined in the Integrated Program adopted in August 1971 at the Twenty-Fifth Session of COMECON, orient each country toward concentration of efforts and material resources on the development of those branches and on the production of those products in which it has the possibility of achieving higher labor productivity.

Certain Methodological Aspects in the Planning of Integration Measures

The coordination of the national economic plans of COMECON member nations as a component part of their collaboration in the realm of planning is the basic method for organizing the further planned development and intensification of the international socialist division of labor and one of the principal means of forming stable and mutually advantageous economic and scientific-technical relations between COMECON member nations. It is aimed at the implementation of measures of the Comprehensive Program for the Development of Socialist Economic Integration, and, together with the internal measures adopted in each country, it promotes the stable development of their national economy, the increased effectiveness of social production, and the further raising of the living standard.

International Economic Organizations and Their Role in the Collaboration of Comecon Countries

Under the conditions of socialist economic integration, joint planning is the basic method of improving economic collaboration and intensifying the socialist division of labor. First and foremost, joint planning concerns the central planning organs, their highest organs of government branch economic administration in COMECON countries (ministries and agencies) in one or another form — economic organizations, industrial associations, and enterprises — and scientific-technical, trade, transport, and other cost-accounting and budget organizations. The functions of the organs of branch administration and of economic organizations are performed within the limits of the rights and competence assigned to them by the laws of their countries to fulfill that part of the direct foreign relations which expresses the exchange of production-technical experience and consultations on prospective development, etc.

PETTY SELF-SUPPORTING MAKERS IN THE DOWNTOWN OF TOKYO

This paper mainly aims to clarify the present status of many craftsman engaged in leather and furniture industries, living in the downtown of Tokyo. Both leather and furniture industries in Japan generally have following character-istics: 1) These industries are mostly occupied by petty selfsupporting makers. 2) These industries are both located in the downtown of large cities like Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe, etc. 3) Reproduction of labor force has been made on a small scale under the ap-prenticeship and putting-out system. 4) Large corporations do not directly participate in the process of production. Especially leather industry is peculiar to have originated from traditional “Buraku” manufacture which sprung up in segregated districts at the feudal age. After the Kanto Earthquake of 1923, ragpickers were forced to live in the dis-trict of Motogi; a lowland along the Arakawa river, by the government authorities.During World War II, the compulsorily migrated Korean and low income group had centered into the slums. Rag-pickers and leather manufacturers began to increase in number. In addition, many furniture makers, who had concentrated in the former Arakawa-ku removed to the outskirts of the slums of Motogi, Adachi-ku. As a result, small-scale factories are densely located in this area. The self-supporting makers, mainly made up of unpaid family workers, play an important role in the leather and the furniture industries of this area. The self-support-ing makers are neither capitalists nor wage laborers. For they are mainly supported by unpaid family workers despite of having means of production. The lower class of the self-supporting makers are defined as follows. 1) no wage laborer. 2) supply of raw materials from lager ones. 3) no subcontract. These self-supporting makers earn a processing wage from large ones which supply the materials. Therefore, these self-supporting makers are termed capitalistic domestic wage laborers. The apprenticeship system has a tendency of crush by the mechanization and the lack of young labor forces. The social division of labor has developed and brought a “deformed craftsman”, who only takes charge of partial process. Many auxiliary workmen, who are mostly housewives of low income group and surplus labor force in the slums, have participated in the process of production. As to production control, wholesale capitals have become weaker, though they still control the completed-products in the market. On the other hand, large makers are taking the place of the wholesale capitals. Facing the economic depression, many of the self-supporting makers are forced to close their businesses for the decline in demand. As a result, they are obliged to become an unstable wage laborers in the downtown of Tokyo.

Unequal Education and the Reproduction of the Social Division of Labor

Unequal Education and the Reproduction of the Social Division of Labor

Miejsce pracy w Marksowskim humanizmie

The article deals with the attitude of Marx and Engels towards the appraisal of labour as a value, and the relation between labour and the implementation of the principle of universal development of the individual personality. First, the changes in their views on the appraisal of labour are discussed. In his Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts Marx understood labour as a spontaneous expression of human thought and the formation of a new environment in which man recognizes his own qualities. In that period Marx considered value to be an affirmation of human life and a requirement put to the individual and to society. In his later, mature works Marks refused to consider an act of labour as value and defined it as conquering nature. The act of labour was to Marx no longer a value but a process which is giving value to human products and, therefore, is a necessary condition of human existence in all social systems. Marx did not regard the act of labour as a postulate or an ideal. In his opinion, the act of labour acquired value depending on its effects for the universal development of all individuals. The Marxian ideal of a perfect man implied a series of postulates relating to the organization of labour. The author criticizes Raymond Aron’s interpretation of Marxian humanism. In the works of Marx, Aron perceives a contradiction between the postulate of universal labour and the postulate of leisure in the meaning of condition in which the idea of the perfect man is realized. According to the author, from the ideal of a perfect man results the postulate of obligatory labour for all members of the society, i.e., that everybody should contribute to the development of the productive forces in order to secure the material conditions for the development of their personality. The realization of Marxian humanism requires also the maintenance of definite proportions between labour determined by the social division of labour (necessary in this sense), and leisure which should imply not only resting but also activity towards a free development of various individual abilities. In the works of Marx there is no contradiction but a complementary relation between labour and leisure. Pobierz

The Scientific-Technical Revolution And Economic Collaboration Among Socialist Countries

Economic collaboration among socialist countries is a complex economic process. The problem of effectively controlling this process and of comprehensively utilizing the advantages of the international socialist division of labor by each country and by the commonwealth as a whole requires study of long-range trends in the development of economic interrelations and determination of the most important factors influencing the economic relations of socialist countries. At the present time, one such factor is the rapidly developing scientific-technical revolution, which to a large extent determines the scope, nature, and direction, and the forms and methods, of economic collaboration among socialist countries.

The Interbranch Balance and Questions of Planning

The present scientific and technical revolution is intensifying the social division of labor and enriching the structure of the economy. Each branch is becoming less autonomous, and changes in its development exert more and more of an impact on related departments in social production. This is why it is so important that there be increasingly precise coordination of national economic proportions and of the dynamics of all interbranch production flows. Under the reform, the role of economic analysis of multilateral economic relations assumes greater importance. This is true of the establishment of prices, of calculations on the effectiveness of production, and of numer - ous other economic problems. At the same time the economy's qualitative indices also take on added importance.

The International Socialist Division of Labor and Its Role in the Increased Profitability of Bulgaria’s Foreign Trade

The International Socialist Division of Labor and Its Role in the Increased Profitability of Bulgaria’s Foreign Trade

Economic Stimulation of the Development of International Production Specialization

Among the most important tasks in the sphere of economic cooperation between the USSR and the socialist nations is the task, posed by the 23rd Congress of the CPSU, of further developing economically effective and stable specialization and coordination of production among interested fraternal countries, first and foremost, in machine-building, the chemical industry, ferrous metallurgy, and electronics — i.e., in those branches in which the socialist division of labor is most intensive. This task can be successfully and rapidly resolved by using and improving all economic tools, including prices, credits, the system of accounts, trade agreements, accords on specialization, etc., so that they will promote the effectiveness of social production within the individual Comecon member nations, as well as in the commonwealth of socialist nations as a whole.

Differentiation and Solidarity in Agricultural Communities

The hypothesis that communities may be characterized by their degree of sociocultural complexity has taken many forms, from earlier polar typologies to recent detailed analyses of the social division of labor. Without reviewing such well-known material, it may be said that the significance of such a dimension - here called differentiation - is widely recognized. It is a concept that organizes a wide variety of institutional patterning previously thought to be disparate. It also allows one to rank communities from simple to complex, even when the communities are from different cultural contexts. A third asset involves the assessment of degree of differentiation at an earlier time period. When this is done, it is possible to compute increase or decrease in differentiation, in short, to measure "community growth."

Main Trends in Improving Prices in Trade Among Comecon Members

Perfecting price formation in the trade of Comecon [Council for Mutual Economic Assistance] members is an important and, at the same time, complex problem. The importance of this problem is determined by the growing significance of foreign trade as the international socialist division of labor develops, and this development is one of the decisive conditions of the accelerated economic growth of the socialist system of economy. Foreign trade prices are called upon to become an effective lever for raising the productivity of social labor in the countries of the socialist commonwealth on the basis of technical progress, international socialist division of labor, and specialization and cooperation in production among states.

The Economic Efficiency of the Socialist Countries' Foreign Trade

The objective process of the development and intensification of international socialist division of labor proceeds under conditions of the existence of sovereign national socialist states which, in their foreign economic relations, act as the owners of the goods produced. Accordingly, the exchange of the results of economic activity between socialist countries on the basis of production specialization and cooperation is conducted in the form of commodity exchange through socialist foreign trade. The benefits of the international socialist division of labor are realized in the process of commodity exchange; reciprocal international trade reflects the results of the given socialist country's participation in the system of interstate production specialization and cooperation. In this connection, calculations of the economic efficiency of foreign trade, which make it possible to reveal the degree to which the countries have an interest in effecting international specialization and trade in certain types of pr...