Soccer Match Research Articles

Real-time forecasting within soccer matches through a Bayesian lens

Abstract This article employs a Bayesian methodology to predict the results of soccer matches in real-time. Using sequential data of various events throughout the match, we utilise a multinomial probit regression in a novel framework to estimate the time-varying impact of covariates and to forecast the outcome. English Premier League data from eight seasons are used to evaluate the efficacy of our method. Different evaluation metrics establish that the proposed model outperforms potential competitors inspired by existing statistical or machine learning algorithms. Additionally, we apply robustness checks to demonstrate the model’s accuracy across various scenarios.

A new approach to comparing the demands of small-sided games and soccer matches.

To improve soccer performance, coaches should be able to replicate the match's physical efforts during the training sessions. For this goal, small-sided games (SSGs) are widely used. The main purpose of the current study was to develop similarity and overload scores to quantify the degree of similarity and the extent to which the SSG was able to replicate match intensity. GPSs were employed to collect external load and were grouped in three vectors (kinematic, metabolic, and mechanical). Euclidean distance was used to calculate the distance between training and match vectors, which was subsequently converted into a similarity score. The average of the pairwise difference between vectors was used to develop the overload scores. Three similarity (Simkin, Simmet, Simmec) and three overload scores (OVERkin, OVERmet, OVERmec) were defined for kinematic, metabolic, and mechanical vectors. Simmet and OVERmet were excluded from further analysis, showing a very large correlation (r > 0.7, p < 0.01) with Simkin and OVERkin. The scores were subsequently analysed considering teams' level (First team vs. U19 team) and SSGs' characteristics in the various playing roles. The independent-sample t-test showed (p < 0.01) that the First team presented greater Simkin (d = 0.91), OVERkin (d = 0.47), and OVERmec (d = 0.35) scores. Moreover, a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) was employed to evaluate differences according to SSG characteristics. The results suggest that a specific SSG format could lead to different similarity and overload scores according to the playing position. This process could simplify data interpretation and categorize SSGs based on their scores.

Who are the best passing players in professional soccer? A machine learning approach for classifying passes with different levels of difficulty and discriminating the best passing players.

The present study aimed to assess the use of technical-tactical variables and machine learning (ML) classifiers in the automatic classification of the passing difficulty (DP) level in soccer matches and to illustrate the use of the model with the best performance to distinguish the best passing players. We compared eight ML classifiers according to their accuracy performance in classifying passing events using 35 technical-tactical variables based on spatiotemporal data. The Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm achieved a balanced accuracy of 0.70 ± 0.04%, considering a multi-class classification. Next, we illustrate the use of the best-performing classifier in the assessment of players. In our study, 2,522 pass actions were classified by the SVM algorithm as low (53.9%), medium (23.6%), and high difficulty passes (22.5%). Furthermore, we used successful rates in low-DP, medium-DP, and high-DP as inputs for principal component analysis (PCA). The first principal component (PC1) showed a higher correlation with high-DP (0.80), followed by medium-DP (0.73), and low-DP accuracy (0.24). The PC1 scores were used to rank the best passing players. This information can be a very rich performance indication by ranking the best passing players and teams and can be applied in offensive sequences analysis and talent identification.

Comparison of external load during pre-match warm-up among different age categories from the same football professional club

The aim of the present study was to compare the external load (EL) of the football pre-match warm-up (WU) in absolute terms and as a percentage (%) of the individual match demands. A total of 96 football players from different age categories participated in the study: professional (PRO, n=26), reserve (RES, n=22), under-21 (U21, n=28) and U18 (n=20) teams. Eleven EL variables were obtained through global positioning system devices. The results show that there are differences among teams in total duration, total distance, number of accelerations and decelerations, acceleration load, distance covered at different speed ranges and the maximum velocity, both expressed absolutely and relative to the match demands. The EL of the WU represents a variable percentage depending on a particular variable with respect to the match, ranging from ≈5% for high-speed running or very high-speed running to ≈20% for acceleration-load. The conclusions were: 1) the WU load represents an important part of the EL on players in soccer matches, and 2) the PRO team presented a lower EL in most of the variables, being consistent in both absolute and relative terms to the match demand. The strength and conditioning coaches must be cautious not to cause fatigue in the players while guaranteeing an adequate set-up to dispute the match.

Violence towards Division Two Soccer Referees in the Central Region of Ghana

The mishandling of soccer referees is generally unspoken to be the chief cause of a decline in the number of soccer referees in the world. The role of handling the game environment puts the referee in a protuberant situation in sports. However, their judgement is highly exposed to violence in the context of soccer. Referees occupy an important position in the sport, having the duty of managing the game, and are therefore exposed to abusive events. In this regard, the study explored what incites fans, players, coaches, and administrators to abuse Division Two soccer referees in the Central Region of Ghana before, during and after matches. Qualitative exploratory study specifically the phenomenological approach was used for this work. The study surveyed six referees, six supporters, four players and four coaches in the region. This study found that the types of violence that frequently happen on the pitch before, during and after soccer matches in the Central Region of Ghana are quasi-criminal violence and criminal violence. Also, the main causes of violence comprise dissatisfaction with match officials’ disciplinary action, spectators’ dissatisfaction, infrastructure inadequacy, unprofessionalism of security personnel, bribery, coach’s incitement, desire to win at all cost, and substance and drug use. From the findings of the study, it was concluded that most violence occurs after the game. Also, acts of violence against soccer referees can cause distraction and insecurity and result in a decrease in performance. In line with the findings, the study recommends that the respective bodies institute an award scheme for referees who will excel in their matches and punish those who will also indulge themselves in bribery and corruption to change the outcome of matches.

Defining Worst-Case-Scenario Thresholds in Soccer: Intensity Versus Volume.

This study aimed to enhance the understanding of soccer match peak demands by describing worst-case scenario (WCS) and time spent above 80% and 90% of the WCS for total distance (TD) and high-speed running (HSR). The investigation considered playing level (first team vs under-19 [U19] team) and playing position (center backs, fullbacks, midfielders, and forwards) to assess how WCS and the time spent above specific thresholds vary across different populations. Data from 31 players in a professional Italian soccer club were collected during the 2022-23 season. Microtechnology devices tracked physical activity during matches. Players were categorized by position, and WCS was determined using rolling averages over a 1-minute period. Time spent above 80% and 90% of WCS for TD and HSR was calculated. The U19 team exhibited higher HSR WCS compared with the first team (∼63m·min-1 vs ∼56m·min-1). Midfielders recorded the highest TD WCS (∼208m·min-1), and forwards exhibited the highest HSR WCS (∼70m·min-1). The first team spent significantly more time above 80% (∼6min) and 90% (∼1min) of TD WCS. Midfielders spent significantly more time above the 80% (∼7min) of TD WCS, while forwards above the 80% (∼2min) of HSR WCS. The study emphasizes that WCS used alone may not sufficiently capture real match intensity. Considering the time spent above specific thresholds provides additional insights (ie,between-levels differences and position). Practitioners should consider both WCS and time spent above thresholds for individualized training prescriptions, reflecting differences in playing roles.

Analyzing soccer match sprint distances: A comparison of GPS-based absolute and relative thresholds.

This study compared the most common absolute sprint threshold (> 25.2 km/h) with relative and individualized thresholds (> 70%, > 75%, > 80%, > 85% and > 90% of peak match speed). Twenty elite soccer players, competing in the first division of the Portuguese League, were monitored using GNSS equipment during thirty-four official matches. Peak match speed was retrieved as the individual maximal speed reached during the full season. Distances were registered when speed overcame the absolute and the relative thresholds. Mean ± SD of peak speeds and distances covered were calculated, and Pearson correlation (r) and mean paired differences were performed to analyze relationships and differences between thresholds. The peak match speed was 32.9 ± 1.4 km/h. Correlations between distances covered using the absolute and relative thresholds varied from very strong (> 70%: r = 0.84, p < .001; > 75%: r = 0.89, p < .001; and > 80%: r = 0.88, p < .001), strong (> 85%: r = 0.79, p < .001), to moderate (> 90%: r = 0.59, p < .001). Overall, the > 75% (ES: 0.23 [95% CI: 0.16, 0.31]) and the > 90% (ES: -1.65 [95%CI: -1.85, -1.48]) relative thresholds presented the smallest and largest differences, respectively, with the absolute threshold. Differences were also found when considering the playing positions. While the distances covered by central midfielders were similar between the absolute and > 80% thresholds (-0.03 [-0.16, 0.10]), fullbacks covered largely more distance -1.88 [-2.42 -1.50]) in the absolute threshold than in the > 80% threshold. The distances covered by players varied based on the selected threshold, affecting the distances covered by different playing positions. Being the highest speed threshold within displacements thresholds, the absolute sprint threshold showed greater similarity to lower rather than higher relative thresholds.

Quantifying within-matches tactical behaviors using position data and notational analysis in soccer

This study aimed to compare the collective and individual tactical positional behavior before the first goal was scored or conceded in official soccer matches. The sample comprised 50 players and 27 official matches played in Brazil during the 2020 and 2021 U-20 seasons. Global Positioning System devices were used to monitor the players’ positional data. Collective – width, length, length per width ratio, and stretching index – and individual – spatial exploration index – variables were calculated and compared between the contextual scenarios by a one-way ANOVA. Results indicated a reduction in the width after scoring a goal (p=.006) and a lower spatial exploration after conceding a goal (p&amp;lt;.001) compared with the draw condition. Therefore, it is concluded that goal-scoring affects the tactical positional responses of the players. Specifically, a higher width concentration, characteristic of defensive tactical behavior, is observed after scoring a goal to keep the current match status. On the other hand, players present difficulties in exploring the space after conceding a goal. The knowledge of these intrinsic game dynamics is helpful for coaches in preparing the strategies to explore changes due to goal scoring in official matches.

How do anxiety and stress affect soccer referees? An ERPs study.

The decision-making of soccer referees is one of the typical forms influenced by factors such as environmental pressure and individual emotions. While previous studies have explored how common factors like personal anxiety and on-field pressure affect the decisions of soccer referees, the mechanisms by which anxiety influences decision-making under pressure remain unclear. This study developed a penalty task based on real soccer match scenarios and recruited 76 experienced soccer referees. These referees were divided into two groups, high anxiety and low anxiety, based on their anxiety levels, to perform decision-making tasks under different pressure environments simulated to mimic real matches. Additionally, this research employed Event-Related Potential (ERP) technology to compare the brain signals of soccer referees with different levels of anxiety when facing foul play under various pressure environments. It was found that referees with high levels of anxiety displayed larger P300 and N400 amplitudes in a low-pressure environment (p = 0.0059, t = 2.9437). However, no significant differences in P300 and N400 amplitudes were observed between referees with high and low levels of anxiety under high-pressure conditions (p = 0.1890, t = 1.3411). This study not only reveals the complex mechanisms of anxiety in the decision-making process of referees but also emphasizes the importance of understanding and managing the psychological state of referees in competitive sports to improve the quality of their decisions. Our findings provide an empirical basis for future efforts to mitigate the impact of anxiety and optimize the decision-making process in similar high-pressure environments.

Soccer Match Algorithm for Global Optimization: A Contender Metaheuristic

Soccer Match Algorithm for Global Optimization: A Contender Metaheuristic

Video Refereeing Model of Soccer Match Based on Fuzzy Clustering and Cuckoo Optimization Algorithm

Video Refereeing Model of Soccer Match Based on Fuzzy Clustering and Cuckoo Optimization Algorithm

Acute effect of ischemic preconditioning on physical performance and heart rate of young Soccer players during Soccer Match

Acute effect of ischemic preconditioning on physical performance and heart rate of young Soccer players during Soccer Match

Improvements in Primary Emergency Care Understanding during Matches for Football Coaches and Referees in East Java

Improper initial management of emergency conditions during soccer matches causes long-term morbidity, affects the athlete’s future performance, and is sometimes life-threatening. Soccer coaches and referees can be laypeople who give first aid and understand when to remove the athlete from the field of play. This program aims to improve the emergency management knowledge of the coaches and referees in East Java. This program was conducted in September 2022 – January 2023. All referees, assistant referees, and coaches of the Football Association of Indonesia region East Java who attended this training were included. The emergency management training was presented material using video, PowerPoint media, and hands-on mannequins. Before and after the training, participants were given some questions to assess their level of knowledge, with a minimum passing score was 75. Comparative tests (Wilcoxon signed rank, McNemar, and Chi-square test) were used to analyze the data. A hundred and twenty-eight (128) participants were included in this program. The median of the pre-and post-test scores were 62.5 and 87.5. There was a significant difference between pre-and post-test scores (p &lt; 0.001). There was no significant difference between coaches and referee groups in pre-test scores (p = 0.743). However, in the post-test score, the coach group had a significantly higher number of participants who did not pass than the referee group (29.6% vs. 10.8%, p = 0.007). This program improved the emergency knowledge during matches of the coaches and referees to prevent adding the severity of injuries of the soccer athlete.

Treatment Strategy for a Closed Tibial Pilon Fracture Concomitant with a Closed Lateral Malleolus Fracture That Occurred in a Context of Low Energy Trauma: A Case Report of a 43-Year-Old Man

Tibial pilon fractures are rare and challenging fractures of the lower limb that account for about 1% of all lower limbs fractures and up to 10% of tibial fractures. They are challenging in terms of treatment outcomes. The injury is generally caused by high energy axial trauma from motor vehicle accidents or a fall from height. The type of definitive fixation is still a great challenge for surgeons and is dictated by the soft tissue injury and energy imparted to the fracture. In this case report, we describe the combination of a closed tibial pilon fracture and a closed lateral malleolus fracture occurring in an unusual context for this type of injury in a 43-year-old-man. It actually occurred in a context of low energy trauma of the ankle during a friendly soccer match. A one step internal fixation method was chosen for definitive treatment. For this, two screws were used for the fixation of the tibial pilon fracture and the external malleolus was fixed with two Kirschner wires. Post-operative follow-up was uncomplicated.

The Wisdom of No Crowds: The Reaction of Betting Markets to Lockdown Soccer Games

The support of home spectators is one of the contributing factors to the home advantage effect in sports matches. The COVID-19 pandemic led to European soccer matches being played without spectators. Contrary to previous findings in the literature, we show that betting markets adjusted promptly to account for a reduced home advantage in both goal difference and the probability of a win. These adjustments proved accurate over a large sample of soccer matches subsequently played without spectators, even though the earliest games appeared to suggest a much bigger change in home advantage.

The Influence of Stadium Attributes on Stadium Loyalty Development within the Context of Saudi Arabia

Although soccer has become vastly popular on a global scale as evident in the constant setup of new leagues and teams worldwide, there are critical issues that primarily regard attendance rates at live soccer matches. This is due to low attendance rates, specifically in comparison to the capacity of stadiums. Therefore, it is important to investigate factors and attributes that can potentially resolve such issues. Thus, this study investigates stadium attributes as predicting factors of stadium loyalty in Saudi Arabia. Especially in Saudi Arabia where soccer is considered as the national sport, with huge financial inflow towards soccer infrastructure, there remain the issues of low attendance rate and utilization of soccer stadiums. Thus, by theorizing constructs and related hypotheses based on the extant literature and further accessing them through SEM, we were able to prove not only the hypothesized relations, but also drew out the important implications for both the theoretical and practical domains in Saudi Arabia and countries of the Gulf region. Keywords: Stadium Loyalty, Social Interaction, Entertainment Experience, Team Involvement

Indicators of Fatigue during a Soccer Match Simulation Using GPS-Derived Workload Values: Which Metrics Are Most Useful?

Research into women's competitive soccer matches has shown distance and high-speed running (HSR) reductions over time, but the effects on some GPS-derived metrics have not been investigated. The purpose of this project was to examine the utility of common GPS metrics for indicating fatigue from the T-SAFT90 match simulation in collegiate soccer players. Unlike in competitive matches, changes to these metrics occurred as early as 15 min, with HSR, average and max speed, and speed intensity (SI) exhibiting significant declines. HSR and SI were even further decreased in later periods, with HSR lower in minutes 30-40 (T30-35 and T35-40) than T15-20 and lower in T70-85 than T45-60. SI showed a similar pattern of continued decline, reaching its lowest value in the last three time segments. Accelerations and decelerations were also decreased beginning at T15-20 and T20-25, respectively, but the fatigue index (FI), dynamic stress load (DSL), and step balance (SB) were unchanged. It can be concluded that in contrast to competitive matches where players can dictate their own intensity, a match simulation may result in a quicker onset of fatigue, but not all GPS-derived values change as expected in fatiguing environments. Coaches and sports scientists may use these findings to properly monitor fatigue in real time.

Grade 11 Learners' Ability to Formulate Mathematics and Mathematical Literacy Questions within a Real-World Soccer Context in Tshwane, South Africa

Learners are often tasked with activities that require them to solve problems in mathematics classrooms. Problem posing is one of the teaching strategies that can enable learners to appreciate the mathematics concepts to be extracted from familiar or everyday situations. However, problem posing, as a teaching and learning strategy, is mostly under-utilised, despite its potential to enhance mathematics learning. This article explores how Grade 11 learners pose Mathematics and Mathematical Literacy questions from a 2010 FIFA World Cup soccer match and determines the extent to which the questions posed by learners mirror the given soccer context. The study involved 42 participants, comprising 22 Mathematics and 20 Mathematical Literacy learners from a high school in the Soshanguve township in Tshwane, South Africa. Participants were selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected through a written task in which learners were given a scenario in the form of an extract from a 2010 FIFA World Cup soccer match report. The qualitative findings of the study show that learners were generally capable of posing or formulating questions based on the real-life soccer context provided. The analysis showed that (a) Mathematics learners formulated more questions with more mathematical terms in them than Mathematical Literacy learners did, and (b) Mathematical Literacy learners formulated questions that were more aligned to the analysis of the game than was the case with Mathematics learners. We argue that learners’ responses to the task were consistent with how they were socialised with the Mathematics and Mathematical Literacy discourse.

The relationship between the development of football and match security technologies from the beginning to the end of the 1980’s

Aim: Football is the ‘king’ of the most popular spectator sports. Its popularity has been unbroken since the inception of the sport. Its development has been accompanied by the aspiration of safety. The aims of the examination of the development from a safety technical point of view to show a comprehensive result of the measures and interventions implemented during the process spanning centuries.Methodology: The Authors used both empirical and logical methods in the present research. They take a qualitative approach to the historical development of the safety and security of football matches, looking for correlations between the way in which they are implemented and the means available, through study and content analysis, with a particular focus on contemporary English football.Findings: The safety of the ancient human’s sport is fundamentally different from the sport of XIX and XX centuries, both in terms of the measures and the tools used too. Following the development of football in its current form, after the temporary period of the 1930’s–1950’s, from the end of the 1960’s, the circumstances of English football life became dominant all over the world. After the world wars football was mainly managed on the basis of political and economic principles. Soccer matches, which attract large crowds from different layer of society, became the subject of the passion of spectators with the same interests, supporting a same club, it was the foundation of football hooliganism was formed and reached its summit in the 1980’s.Value: This symptom of fanatics has caused a huge unsolved problem for several participant of society and made it necessary to coordinate the means and measures of securing football matches.

HiroPoseEstimation: A Dataset of Pose Estimation for Kid-Size Humanoid Robot

Pose estimation is a field of computer vision research that involves detecting, associating, and tracking data points on body parts. It is used for health monitoring, sign language understanding, human gesture control, elderly activities, sports, and humanoid robot pose estimation. The anatomy of a humanoid robot is similar to a human, which forms the basis for utilizing humanoid robot pose estimation. The Humanoid League is a major domain of the RoboCup competition, featuring soccer matches between humanoid robots. Pose estimation is used to measure the robot’s performance. Nevertheless, there have not been many research done on this subject. A new dataset model needs to be developed to solve the proposed problem. This work introduces HiroPoseEstimation, a kid-size humanoid robot dataset with several types of robots used in various poses based on movements in a soccer game. It is evaluated with both bottomup and top-down approaches using keypoint mask R-CNN and single-stage encoder-decoder model. Both methods demonstrate good performance on the proposed dataset.