Snouck Hurgronje Research Articles

Snouck Hurgronje and the Tradition of Orientalism in Indonesia

This article aims to reveal and analyze the works and thoughts of Snouck Hurgronje's orientalism in Indonesia. Hurgronje was the most influential orientalist in formulating the Dutch Colonialism policy in Indonesia. Unlike most orientalists who only studied Islam through literature studies, Hurgroje also penetrated directly into the Muslim community and mingled with them, he even managed to infiltrate Muslim intellectuals by pretending to convert to Islam. This research is a qualitative study that uses literature to collect data from books, journals, and other documents related to Hurgronje's thoughts. This research found that there is a deep relationship between orientalism and colonialism as seen in Hurgronje's works. Among his most phenomenal orientalist thoughts is his thesis that the Hajj ritual in Islam is a pagan legacy. Hurgronje also made a strategic move in the Aceh War by advising the Dutch East Indies government to separate religion and politics (secularization). According to Hurgronje, if Islam was integrated with politics, it would encourage people's resistance, which was dangerous for the Dutch. In addition, Hurgronje also developed the Receptie theory which aims to dwarf Islamic law and uphold traditional law to clash the two.

Unobvious Parallels: Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, Wacław Sieroszewski, and Their Role in Gathering Imperial Knowledge in Sumatra and Yakutia in the 1890S

The article focuses on two authors who in the 1890s contributed towards the European knowledge of two Asiatic societies—the Acehnese in Sumatra and the Yakuts in Syberia. They arrived in Asia in very different capacities: a Dutchman Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje as an advisor to the Dutch colonial government, and a Pole Wacław Sieroszewski as a political prisoner. Whereas Snouck Hurgronje was an established scholar, Sieroszewski was a self-taught ethnographer, who traded his knowledge gathered during the years of exile for freedom and scholarly recognition, granted by institutions of the same Russian empire against which he had fought as a Polish revolutionary. And yet there were also striking similarities between the two men. They both owed their intimacy with the studied societies to their "going native," including marriages with local women. Their works also reveal common patterns as they followed scholarly standards accepted in post-Enlightenment Europe, although Sieroszewski was less persuaded of the merits of Europe's "civilizing mission." The two cases shed light on two European imperialisms that deviated from the "ideal type," associated by Edward Said with Britain and France, as well as different circumstances of the encounters between Europeans and Asians along with their ethical implications.

The Western Perspective on Islam: Reading the Legacy of Snouck Hurgronje on Islamic Studies

This article discusses the Western perspective on Islamic studies, particularly through the academic legacy of Snouck Hurgronje, a Dutch scholar known for his research on Muslim culture in Aceh and his influence on the Dutch colonial strategy in the Dutch East Indies. The author aims to answer two questions: what were the methods and characteristics of Islamic studies used by Snouck Hurgronje, and how do they differ from contemporary Islamic studies? Utilizing library research, it examines scholarly literature on Hurgronje, comparing his methods to current Islamic studies practices in Western universities and Indonesia. The article sheds light on Hurgronje’s role in introducing anthropology and ethnography to Islamic studies, noting his significant contributions to the development of ethnographic methods in this area. It suggests that his approach has been influential in shaping the study of Islam and continues to influence contemporary research methodologies in the field. However, the article also notes that 21st-century Islamic studies are fundamentally different from Hurgronje’s era, with a greater focus on insider researchers and a lack of imperialistic interests. These scholars, particularly those in Indonesian universities under the Ministry of Religious Affairs, have a significant influence on the field and continue the legacy of Hurgronje by using philological, anthropological, and ethnographic approaches to Islamic studies.

Discourse Of Islamization In Indonesia: Hoesein Djajadiningrat’s Vision In The Colonial And Postcolonial Periods

Abstract: Discourses on Islamization in Indonesia are quite varied, including giving birth to the opinion that Islam originated in Gujarat, Mecca, Persia and China. The problem is, the discourse about the opinion of the coming of Islam to Indonesia which later became a unified historical story is rarely found. The discourse on Islamization became a long discourse in the colonial and postcolonial periods. This paper aims to elaborate on the vision of Islamization according to Hoesein Djajadiningrat. Hoesein argues that Islam in Indonesia originates from Persia. The argument in this paper is that Hoesein as an intellectual can be aligned with scholars who give opinions on Islamization such as Snouck Hurgronje, Pijnappel, JP Moquette, Hamka, and Abu Bakar Aceh. This paper uses historical methods consisting of heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The results in this paper find that the Islamization discourse originating from Persia is a strengthening of the Islamization of Gujarat and a counter discourse of Arab Islamization. Therefore, this paper will analyze, first, the Islamization Debate in Western discourse. Second, the postcolonial Islamization Debate, and Third, the Arab vs Persian Islamization debate.Keywords: Hoesein Djajadiningrat, Islam, Persian, Colonial, Postcolonial

Between translation and commentary: an interlinear text from the collection of Snouck Hurgronje

Through a case study of a bilingual manuscript found in the collection of Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (1857-1936) in Leiden, the article explores some aspects of the practice of interlinear translation in the Indonesian-Malay world. Dating back to around 1903-1904 and being a copy of a manuscript brought by the Dutch from a military campaign in Gayo, Aceh, the manuscript contains an anonymous didactic poem in Arabic provided with phrase-by-phrase Malay translation between the lines. The author juxtaposes the source text and its translation and argues that the translator employed the interlinear space for both literal and interpretative types of translation, which demonstrates the role of this space in the Islamic educational practices as that for both language teaching and religious instruction.

The Superiority of Customary Law over Islamic Law on the Existence of Inheritance: Reflections on Snouck Hurgronje's Reception Theory

In colonial history in the Dutch East Indies, customary law was superior to Islamic law. By utilizing the historical approach of social thought, this article aims at exploring how and why customary inheritance law was more applicable than Islamic inheritance law. After observing the practice in several areas, including in Surambi Masjid, Snouck Hurgronje found that customary law dominated people's lives. In turn, this idea was implemented in Dutch legal regulations that weakened the roles of penghulu of the Religious Courts in resolving family and inheritance issues that required approval from the District Court judges. In addition, the penghulu’s decision was not valid if it was not in line with customary law. Based on Hurgronje’s advice, the competence of the Religious Court at inheritance was transferred to the District Court. He considered that inheritance was under the state’s authority, and at the same time, it had not been fully accepted by customary law.

The Snouck Hurgronje’s Doctrine in Conquering the Holy Revolts of Acehnese Natives

This article aims to analyze the role of Christian Snouck Hurgronje in Aceh warfare (1873-1902). Snouck Hurgronje was involved in the Dutch war in Aceh by advising military chiefs of the best approach to conquer the insurgency in the Aceh region. The article is qualitative research, in which data is primarily extracted from secondary resources, such as books, journals, and other related sources on this topic. The paper found that after the Dutch declared war on Aceh on 26th March 1873, they were exhausted and lost against the Acehnese revolt. The Dutch government finally recruited an Islamic and Oriental expert from Leiden University, Prof Christian Snouck Hurgronje, to find the best way to conquer the rebellion in Aceh. This recruitment was also intertwined with the academic motivation of Hurgronje to understand Islam and its society of Aceh. Accordingly, Hurgronje suggested that the best solution to end the Acehnese resistance was by establishing a good partnership with the Acehnese royal chiefs called ‘Uleebalang’ on the one hand and demolishing the resistance groups that led by the ulama (Islamic scholars) groups on the other hand. Snouck Hurgronje believed that the ulama was the most radical Islamic institution who led a holy war against the Dutch colonial regime in Aceh. As a result, the Dutch military chief interpreted his recommendation by deploying all resources to hunt and execute the ulama and their followers. In some cases, this military operation caused a genocide of innocent peoples such as women, the elderly, and children.

Camera, Canvas, and Qibla: Late Ottoman Mobilities and the Fatih Mosque Painting

Abstract This article discusses the multiple mobilities of images, photographs, photographers, viewers, and places by focusing on Miʿmarzade Muhammed ʿAli’s (d. 1938) oil-on-canvas painting, now located in the Fatih Mosque in Istanbul. It explores the limits, lives, possibilities, and uses of photographic views and the exchanges between photography, painting, and print media by investigating the geopolitics and geopiety of the Hamidian era (i.e., Sultan ʿAbdülhamid II, r. 1876–1909), the production and circulation of early photographs of Mecca and Medina, and the spatial tradition of qibla decorum. It examines the photographic oeuvres of Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (d. 1936), al-Sayyid ʿAbd al-Ghaffar, and the committee of the Erkān-ı Ḥarbiyye (General Military Staff), including Muhammad Sadiq Bey (d. 1902), as well as the reproductions and changing contexts of these photographs. Furthermore, this article highlights the role of print media in the dissemination and mobilization of the photographic image and the malleable politics of representation, especially as it pertains to the two sacred cities of Mecca and Medina.

Kajian Orientalis Terhadap Sanad dan Matan Hadis sebagai Sumber Hukum Islam

Orientalist studies of Islam and hadith have generated mixed responses from Muslims. Some were loud, extreme and quite harsh by rejecting the studies conducted by the Orientalists. However, some other Muslims are gentler by taking the positive side of the studies they have carried out, namely that they can contribute to Islamic knowledge and assets and also study of hadith in particular. Several names emerged which were later considered as orientalists who were quite intense in studying Islam and hadith, they were: Ignaz Goldziher, Duncan Black, Carl Becker, Snouck Hurgronje, and Louis Massignon, A.J. Wensinck, G.H.A. Joynboll, Daniel W. Brown, Alois Sprenger, Sir Willian Muir, A. Guillaume, S. Mackrnsen Ruth, J. Schact, and others. The orientalists who departed from a skeptical attitude began to cause uproar among Muslims by saying that the hadith was only made by the Companions and not from the Prophet. They also criticize the hadith in terms of sanad or matan, whose authenticity is still considered very dubious and lean made by certain parties.Keywords: orientalis, critic, sanad, Matan

Guru Tasawuf Ḥaḍrat al-Shaykh K.H. M. Hasyim Asy’ari di Makkah

This article will answer a question who is the Sufism teacher Ḥaḍrat al-Shaykh Hasyim Asy’ari in Makkah? To answer this question, the writer uses primary and secondary data. The first is primary data, the author is guided by the manuscript in the book of Ḥaḍrat al-Shaykh's legacy. A philological approach is needed to read it. While the second is secondary data, the author refers to Snouck Hurgronje's writing which records the activities of the hajj, especially the Javanese community in Mecca. In this study, the authors found data on the name of Syekh ‘Abd al-Shakūr Surabaya as Ḥaḍrat al-Shaykh's teacher in the field of Sufism along with some information related to the teacher that is not often found in the existing literature.

History, Typology, and Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia: Combination of Sharia and Fiqh or the Result of Historical Evolution?

This paper highlights the history, typology, and implementation of Islamic law in Indonesia as well as proves that the law is a translation of both sharia and fiqh, rather than a historical evolution, as claimed by Ignaz Goldziher (1850 - 1921 AD) and some of his Muslim followers; nor does the law separate elements of ritual, muamalah, and politics as argued by Christian Snouck Hurgronje (1857–1936 AD), a stance that has deformalized Islamic law in Indonesia considering it an inferior legal institution. Focusing on Islamic civil law which is extracted from relevant literature sources, this paper shows that, to some extent, the influence of orientalists’ views is manifested, for example, in the books of Interfaith Jurisprudence and the Counter Legal Draft of Islamic Law Compilation (CLD - KHI) which have ample of "historical evolution" claims. In fact, the history, typology, and implementation of Islamic law in Indonesia have so far not only been for the benefit in the world but also in the hereafter. Thus, reforming Islamic civil law in line with the West’s human rights values, as done by CLD-KHI initiators, whom are greatly influenced by Ignaz Goldziher’s and Muhammad Anna'im’s "evolution of history", is like considering Islamic law limited to law for the world only, without any ukhrawi values.

History, Typology, and Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia: Combination of Sharia and Fiqh or the Result of Historical Evolution?

This paper highlights the history, typology, and implementation of Islamic law in Indonesia as well as proves that the law is a translation of both sharia and fiqh, rather than a historical evolution, as claimed by Ignaz Goldziher (1850 - 1921 AD) and some of his Muslim followers; nor does the law separate elements of ritual, muamalah, and politics as argued by Christian Snouck Hurgronje (1857–1936 AD), a stance that has deformalized Islamic law in Indonesia considering it an inferior legal institution. Focusing on Islamic civil law which is extracted from relevant literature sources, this paper shows that, to some extent, the influence of orientalists’ views is manifested, for example, in the books of Interfaith Jurisprudence and the Counter Legal Draft of Islamic Law Compilation (CLD - KHI) which have ample of "historical evolution" claims. In fact, the history, typology, and implementation of Islamic law in Indonesia have so far not only been for the benefit in the world but also in the hereafter. Thus, reforming Islamic civil law in line with the West’s human rights values, as done by CLD-KHI initiators, whom are greatly influenced by Ignaz Goldziher’s and Muhammad Anna'im’s "evolution of history", is like considering Islamic law limited to law for the world only, without any ukhrawi values.

Perspekif Orientalisme Tentang Islam di Borneo (Orientalism Perspective About Islam in Borneo)

Western Orientalists works about Islam in Borneo can be divided into two groups, first, traveler, priest or journalist like Horace St. John and Snouck Hurgronje. Some of them can speak and write in Malay. Snouck Hogranje was one of the influential authors who contributed to the formation of many Dutch policies in Indonesia. The second group is the imperialist leaders comprising administrators or colonial officials such as Stamford Raffles, Spenser St. John and Hugh Low who made a policies but they also sometimes write a books that refered by travelers. James Brooke as an example makes Raffles works as a reference to understand the Malays and the situation in the archipelago. There are orientalists who elaborate or do an objective research about people of Borneo. Otherwise, there are many unobjective interpretations, bias, prejudice about ruling system, socio-cultural system, the Malay-Muslim community and Islam itself to discredit Islam and the indigenous population. One of the most prominent perspectives on Islam in Borneo is the use of the term "mohammadenism" to refer to Islam. This concept is also used in official meeting of colonial governments such as Sarawak State Council. Base on this premise, this work will describe an orientalist view of Islam in Borneo based on historical sources.

DAMPAK PEMIKIRAN ORIENTALIS DI INDONESIA PADA MASA KOLONIAL

The Indonesian people had been colonized by the Dutch for 360 years. During that time, many things were done by the Dutch towards Indonesia. The policies issued by the Dutch were much influenced by the advice given by their political advisors. Political advisers (Orientalists) who are quite well known are Stanford Thomas Raffles, William Masrden, and Cristian Snouck Hurgronje. These three political advisors gave accurate advice to the Dutch government in order to influence patterns of social life in Indonesian society. In the field of religion, especially Islam, Thomas S. Raffles and Marsden argue that the teachings of Islam do not give the slightest color to Indonesian culture. Indonesian culture is purely dug out of local customs. Yet in reality, it is the teachings of Islam that characterize the lives of Indonesian people. In the political field, the Dutch were able to conquer the Aceh region on the advice of Snouck Hurgronje who had previously mastered the ins and outs of the Aceh region. In the area of ​​customary law, Snouck with his receptie theory says that indigenous peoples basically only apply customary law; Islamic law can only apply if the norms of Islamic law have been accepted by the community as Adat law. The receptie-Snouck theory, after independence, can be broken by indigenous jurists by proposing their own theories, namely; first, the receptie exit theory by Hazairin. Second, the theory of receptio a contrario by H. Sayuti Thalib, and Third, the theory of existence by H. Ichtijanto SA.

Islamic Policy of the Dutch East Indies Colonial Government in Madura in the First Quarter of the 20th Century

At first the Dutch East Indies government policy towards Islam was wrong, because Islam in the Dutch East Indies was considered a strict religion like the hierarchical priesthood and the pope in Christianity where there was a high relationship of loyalty to the Turkish caliph, so that Islam was considered a formidable enemy. Starting with the implementation of a massive policy by the Dutch East Indies government to suppress Muslims, for example, one of them was in terms of limiting and heavier the regulations for the implementation of the pilgrimage, but in reality, regardless of the obstacles, the frequency of going on hajj was still high. Awareness of the mistakes in political policy towards Islam, the figure of Cristian Snouck Hurgronje, one of the supporters of ethical currents in the Netherlands, appeared, submitting a letter to the minister of the colonies on June 2, 1889 to participate in solving problems in the Dutch East Indies. In this case Snouk Hurgronje was the main advisor and was assisted by advisers consisting of one for Arab affairs and two experts in regional languages ​​in the Dutch East Indies. Based on Snouck Hurgronje's advice, the Dutch colonial government distinguished between Islam in the meaning of worship and Islam as a social, social and political force. This policy towards Islam is divided into three categories, namely the socio-religious field, the socio-cultural sector, and the socio-political sector.

Colonial informants and the Acehnese-Dutch war

ABSTRACT This article discusses the contribution of colonial informants during the Acehnese-Dutch war (1873–c.1912) in responding to Teuku Umar’s collaboration with the Dutch authorities. The object of this study is a collection of letters from the Chief Penghulu of Kutaraja (1893–1895), Haji Hasan Mustapa, to his colonial friend, C. Snouck Hurgronje. These letters are held at the Leiden University Library (Cod. Or. 18.097). Hasan Mustapa’s name is rarely mentioned in studies of the Acehnese-Dutch war. He constantly provided information relating to the war to Snouck Hurgronje who was living in Batavia at the time. This study confirms that Hasan Mustapa’s position was significant in gaining information about Teuku Umar’s collaboration with the Dutch authorities. Hasan Mustapa acquired information from both Acehnese informants and Dutch officials, and believed that Teuku Umar could not be trusted. Hasan Mustapa’s information on Teuku Umar was important for Snouck Hurgronje’s advice to the Dutch authorities in the East Indies. This is therefore a study on the closeness of informants and their patrons during colonial times in the East Indies archipelago.

The Politics of Civilizing the Colony: Haji Hasan Mustapa’s Malay Guidebook on the Etiquette for Acehnese People towards the Dutch in the Netherland East Indies

This article examines how the Dutch colonial government in the Netherland East Indies attempted to civilize its colony through the work on etiquette. It focuses its analysis on the Malay manuscript of Haji Hasan Mustapa on the code of polite behavior for Acehnese in dealing with the Dutch people, Kehormatan kepada Orang Belanda (Cod. Or. 18.097 S9). Hasan Mustapa wrote his work when he served as Chief-Penghulu of Kutaraja, Aceh (1893-1895) and sent it to C. Snouck Hurgronje in Batavia. He wrote the book at the request of Teuku Umar, an Acehnese patriot who used to collaborate with the Dutch authorities. Using a philological analysis, this study suggests that the Dutch authority utilized the native officials to write the etiquette guidebook on speaking and behavior to civilize Acehnese people. Hasan Mustapa’s work on etiquette shows that he played an important role in maintaining the Dutch honor and bridging the interests of the Dutch colonial government in its colony, the Netherland East Indies.

SOCIAL ENGINEERING THROUGH EDUCATION LAW A comparative analysis of cultural policies between the Dutch and Indonesian central Government

Studies on art education and culture are a continuing concern within academicians and politicians. Although extensive research has been carried out on the fields, few studies exist, which concern about the use of art education for cultural hegemony. This study concerns about Acehnese culture and identity. During the time of colonisation, imperialist scholar; Snouck Hurgronje had used cultural resources as the instrument to instil false cultural identity for the interest to take control over Aceh. Stepping on the Dutch’s colonialising policies, the central government of Indonesia has, as argued, used art curriculum as a hegemonic media for similar interests. This article discusses the case of art education in Acehnese by analysing the content of the text books recommended by the central government. This work is to demonstrate the representation of Acehnese cultural identity in the “Art and Culture” curriculum of schools in Aceh. I employ Freire, Hall, Apple, and Giroux thoughts to formulate the framework of this article. The aim of this paper is to understand the mechanism of the art curriculum used to nationalise local people and to uncover the scheme of cultural hegemony in Acehnese schools, Indonesia. This work significantly contributes toward understanding the relation between cultural hegemony and education

Jihad and Islam in World War I. Studies on the Ottoman Jihad on the Centenary of Snouck Hurgronje’s “Holy War made in Germany”, edited by Zürcher, Erik-Jan

Jihad and Islam in World War I. Studies on the Ottoman Jihad on the Centenary of Snouck Hurgronje’s “Holy War made in Germany”, edited by Zürcher, Erik-Jan

PROGRAM HUMANISASI: REFLEKSI TENTANG REHABILITASI PELAKU DAN KORBAN TERORISME UNTUK KONTEKS INDONESIA

Tak terhitung berapa rupiah materi dan pengorbanan lainnya yang dihabiskan untuk menanggulangi perkara terorisme melalui program deradikalisasi, sampai-sampai Polri dan BIN dituding berbagai kalangan sebagai lembaga yang sengaja membikin ‘proyek terorisme’ demi kelangsungan anggaran anti-terorisme milyaran rupiah/tahun. Harus disadari, dicamkan dan ditekankan bahwa dalam membasmi terorisme, negara dan masyarakat mesti seayun langkah dan bersatu. Tulisan ini menawarkan gagasan humanisasi sebagai bagian dari upaya deradikalisasi untuk menambal lubang-lubang yang bocor dari program yang sudah dilaksanakan. Dalam hal ini, humanisasi adalah respon untuk mencegah eskalasi kekerasan. Humanisasi mengakui martabat yang melekat pada manusia, mengakui kemanusiaan lawan-lawannya dan hak-hak asasi semua anggota keluarga manusia. Humanisasi memungkinkan orang mengenali karakteristik manusia yang dianggap musuh atau lawannya, sehingga dapat membantu orang untuk membatasi eskalasi kekerasan yang ekstrim. Humanisasi juga dapat membuka jalan bagi hubungan timbal balik dan keyakinan dalam kesetaraan manusia, menciptakan norma-norma bersama yang membatasi cara konflik tersebut dilancarkan.