Snipe Gallinago Research Articles

Minor differentiation of foraging niche may have a major impact on the incidence of avian botulism in shorebirds

Avian botulism is a fatal disease of birds caused by ingestion of neurotoxins produced by Clostridium botulinum type C and is now recognized as the most common cause of death in waterbirds worldwide. Although tens of species have been reported to suffer from avian botulism, it remains unknown which ecological factors primarily determine inter-specific variation in the incidence of this disease. We hypothesized that an exposure of birds to botulin may largely depend on their foraging niche, as the toxin is available mostly at the sediment surface, especially during the carcass-maggot stage of botulism epizootics. To test this hypothesis we used capture-recapture methods to estimate mortality of two shorebird species differing in bill morphology and foraging niche, wood sandpiper Tringa glareola (short bill, surface-feeding) and common snipe Gallinago gallinago (long bill, deep probing), during a major avian type C botulism outbreak in central Poland. All the reported cases of shorebird mortality were attributed to botulism and we found large differences in daily survival rates of both species (0.87 and 0.99 in wood sandpipers and common snipe, respectively). Even assuming much shorter stopover duration of wood sandpipers, survival rate over the entire stopover period was estimated at 0.57 in the wood sandpiper and at 0.90 in the common snipe. To our knowledge, this is the first non-circumstantial evidence that relatively minor differentiation of foraging niche may have a major impact on the incidence of avian botulism in birds. Our data might also suggest that, on the evolutionary time scale, avian type C botulism may constitute a strong selective pressure acting on foraging niches of shorebirds, and possibly other waterbirds.

The Avifauna of Kosrae, Micronesia: History, Status, and Taxonomy

Abstract: Kosrae, the easternmost high island of Micronesia, is a 110 km2 volcanic island rising up to 630 m above sea level. It is seldom visited by birders and ornithologists because it is small, isolated, and lacks any previously recognized extant endemic bird species. We review the history of research on the island's avifauna and summarize the status of each species, including documentation for six new species: Northern Pintail (Anas acuta), Gray Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago), Bristle-thighed Curlew (Numenius tahitiensis), Red-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis), and Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias hybrida). We discuss previously undescribed vocalizations of endemic taxa and provide online reference to recordings. We also present supporting evidence for the recognition of two taxa as full biological species: Kosrae Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus hernsheimi; formerly part of the P. porphyraceus complex) and Kosrae White-eye (Zosterops cinereus, as a split from Gray-brown White-eye...

Bird communities at two marshes in Øvre Forra, today and 40 years ago

In the protected area Ovre Forra in Central Norway, birds were surveyed at two marshes in two succeeding years at the beginning of the 1970s. By following the same survey procedure 40 years later in these unchanged marsh habitats, I sought changes in the breeding bird community. While the total number of waders seems to have been quite stable, the abundance of some of the involved species might have changed during this period of time. Due to low numbers, and annual variations, the implications for some of the involved species have to be taken cautiously. The most abundant species in Ovre Forra is now the Common Redshank Tringa totanus . This species has outnumbered the earlier most abundant species in this bird community, the Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis . The numbers of the Meadow Pipit, Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus , European Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria and Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos all tend to be lower than for 40 years ago. The Common Gull Larus canus and two Tringa species, the Common Redshank T. totanus and Common Greenshank T. nebularia , seem to have increased in numbers, while the situation for the Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago and the Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus appears to be stable. The Ruff Calidris pugnax used to be a characteristic species on the Ovre Forra’s bogs in the 1970s, but has since vanished. Altogether, the study shows an apparently quite stable avifauna over the time span of 40 years in this environmentally stable reserve.

Post-Breeding and Early Migrant Bird Use and Characteristics of Diked and Undiked Coastal Wetlands in Michigan, USA

Abstract. Bird use of diked and undiked Michigan coastal wetlands (n = 17) was studied on Lake St. Clair and Lake Huron during late July to mid-October, 2005–2007. Relative abundance and diversity were compared via aerial (n = 9) and ground (n= 155) surveys and wetland characteristics were measured. Species richness and similarity indices suggested analogous bird use, but multivariate analyses indicated significant separation in diked and undiked bird assemblages. Wood Duck (Aix sponsa), Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias), and Wilson's Snipe (Gallinago delicata) were more abundant on diked sites, whereas dabbling ducks combined, Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), American Black Duck (A. rubripes), gulls (Laridae), Forster's Tern (Sterna forsteri), and Greater Yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) were more abundant on undiked wetlands. Wetland characteristics also differed. Diked sites were primarily cattail (Typha spp.) marshes interspersed with small open-water areas containing aquatic plants. Undiked sites had lar...

Functional Responses of Human Hunters to Their Prey — Why Harvest Statistics may not Always Reflect Changes in Prey Population Abundance

Harvest records are often assumed to offer an indirect measure of population abundance in huntable species. However, this requires population density changes are reflected in comparable linear changes in harvest rates. We tested this assumption for common snipe Gallinago gallinago, common wood pigeon Columba palumbus, coot Fulica atra, grey partridge Perdix perdix, roe deer Capreolus capreolus and brown hare Lepus europaeus in Denmark. If we consider hunting a form of predator—prey interaction, the annual kill can be viewed as a predator functional response to prey population size. Convergence of the annual kill to a type I functional response with similar auto‐correlative structures in the harvest and count data would support the hypothesis that fluctuations in harvest and population abundance occurred with similar periodicity. The annual kill of common snipe showed the best fit to a type I functional response to the point count indices, with similar auto‐correlative structures in the two variables. Other species showed different functional responses, the result of hunter behaviour, such as voluntary hunting restraint on species of concern and saturation effects from rapidly expanding abundant species. Relationships between the annual kill and population abundance were complex and incorporation of hunting legislation changes improved optimal model fits between harvest statistics and count data. Consideration of the validity of the underlying assumptions is necessary before harvest records are used as an index for population size. It is essential that detectability/accessibility of a species does not change systematically over time. Such bias may derive from habitat shifts, difference in timing of counts and hunting harvest, changes in migration patterns and annual reproduction and mortality. We recommend the continued collation of hunting harvest statistics, supported by sociological studies, to provide insight into the mechanisms that affect the hunting effort, to understand relationships between harvest statistics and population abundance.

The migration of the great snipe Gallinago media: intriguing variations on a grand theme

The migration of the great snipe Gallinago media was previously poorly known. Three tracks in 2010 suggested a remarkable migratory behaviour including long and fast overland non‐stop flights. Here we present the migration pattern of Swedish male great snipes, based on 19 individuals tracked by light‐level geolocators in four different years. About half of the birds made stopover(s) in northern Europe in early autumn. They left the breeding area 15 d earlier than those which flew directly to sub‐Sahara, suggesting two distinct autumn migration strategies. The autumn trans‐Sahara flights were on average 5500 km long, lasted 64 h, and were flown at ground speeds of 25 m s−1 (90 km h−1). The arrival in the Sahel zone of west Africa coincided with the wet season there, and the birds stayed for on average three weeks. The birds arrived at their wintering grounds around the lower stretches of the Congo River in late September and stayed for seven months. In spring the great snipes made trans‐Sahara flights of similar length and speed as in autumn, but the remaining migration through eastern Europe was notably slow. All birds returned to the breeding grounds within one week around mid‐May. The annual cycle was characterized by relaxed temporal synchronization between individuals during the autumn–winter period, with maximum variation at the arrival in the wintering area. Synchronization increased in spring, with minimum time variation at arrival in the breeding area. This suggests that arrival date in the breeding area is under strong stabilizing selection, while there is room for more flexibility in autumn and arrival to the wintering area. The details of the fast non‐stop flights remain to be elucidated, but the identification of the main stopover and wintering areas is important for future conservation work on this red‐listed bird species.

Large-Scale Monitoring of Waders on Their Boreal and Arctic Breeding Grounds in Northern Europe

Large-scale and population-wide monitoring of waders on their boreal and arctic breeding grounds has hitherto been lacking, mainly because logistics are truly challenging in regions with few ornithologists, vast areas and few roads. In Norway, Sweden and Finland (here ‘Fennoscandia’) there are now national monitoring schemes in place, aimed at tracking all bird species, which allows trends to be estimated for northern wader populations. We present joint Fennoscandian population trends for 24 wader species, covering the period 2002–2013 (in some cases somewhat shorter time periods). The data stem from 1263 routes in Norway, Finland, and the northern two thirds of Sweden, all situated north of 58°N. This area of one million km2 largely coincides with the boreal and arctic parts of Fennoscandia. The trends found are rather evenly distributed between strong increases and strong declines. Trends do not differ between short- and long-distance migrants, nor do they vary in relation to breeding latitude. Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula, Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola, Green Sandpiper T. ochropus and Common Redshank T. totanus had significant positive trends, whereas Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Ruff Philomachus pugnax and Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus were declining significantly in numbers. Trends could be calculated even for relatively uncommon breeding birds such as Temminck's Stint Calidris temminckii, Eurasian Dotterel Charadrius morinellus, Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus, Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus and Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus, although these trends build on few routes and individuals, and thus have low precision. The monitoring schemes in Norway and Finland are expected to increase in coverage in the coming years, with up to a total of 1555 northern routes being tracked when the schemes are fully developed. This should enable still more robust trend estimates for northern waders on their Fennoscandian breeding grounds to be calculated in the future.

Ecological, physiological, and morphological correlates of blood hemoglobin concentration in a migratory shorebird.

The information on the phenotypic and ecological factors that influence hemoglobin concentration in free-living birds is scarce. In order to recognize sources of variation in hemoglobin levels of migratory shorebirds, we measured whole-blood hemoglobin concentration in 553 juvenile and 166 adult common snipe Gallinago gallinago during autumn migration through central Poland. Among the intrinsic determinants of hemoglobin concentration in common snipe, we identified traits such as age, wing morphology, developmental stability, nutritional condition, and molt. We found that adult birds had higher hemoglobin concentrations than juveniles. Hemoglobin concentration was not related to body size, but it correlated with wing morphology. In adult males there was also a positive relationship between hemoglobin concentration and developmental stability, measured by fluctuating asymmetry in wing shape. The process of molt was found to affect blood hemoglobin concentration in both juvenile and adult common snipe, as the lowest concentrations were recorded in the initial stages of molt. Finally, we recorded a gradual increase in hemoglobin concentration of juvenile and adult snipe over the course of the autumn migratory season, and this trend was attributed to higher fat loads carried by late migrants. Hemoglobin concentration also correlated with other indices of nutritional state, such as plasma concentrations of proteins. All this clearly indicates that hemoglobin concentration may reflect a wide range of physiological processes, but in spite of this immense variation, it is likely to reliably indicate phenotypic quality of birds.

A survey and GIS-based estimate of the breeding population of Great Snipe Gallinago media in Central Norway

Capsule By using a GIS-model to identify suitable breeding habitats for Great Snipe in Central Norway, we estimated a total of 276 leks holding approximately 2700 males.Aim To estimate the size of the Great Snipe population in central parts of the species remaining breeding areas in Western Europe.Methods GIS-analysis identified an area of 528 km2 as suitable habitat for Great Snipe in the total study area (22 000 km2). Complete surveys were made in 8% of these habitats by using a subset of 53 sampling areas.Results A total of 28 Great Snipe leks were found within the sampling areas. Ten of these were found in previously known lek areas, while 18 leks were found in areas with no previous knowledge of leks. Extrapolating the lek density and the lek size found in the surveyed areas, resulted in a total estimate of 276 Great Snipe leks holding approximately 2700 lekking males. The leks were found on open fens along the forest edge and were mainly situated on base-rich bedrocks. Mean altitude of the leks was 570 m.Conclusion The total population of Great Snipe in Norway was previously assumed to comprise 5000–15 000 lekking males or ‘pairs'. By extrapolating the densities of leks found in Central Norway to a national scale, we expect the true breeding population of Great Snipe to be approximately 13 500 males. Changes in the elevation of the tree limit and increased overgrowth, as a result of reduced grazing pressure and/or global warming, are possible threats that may reduce the availability of preferred Great Snipe habitats and increase population fragmentation.

Synergies between site protection and agri‐environment schemes for the conservation of waders on lowland wet grasslands

Two conservation strategies have been put in place in Europe to address precipitous population declines of wading birds that breed on lowland wet grasslands. These are site protection and agri‐environment schemes (AESs) and the two are rarely compared, or their synergy assessed. Increasingly, efforts to recover populations of previously widespread species follow a landscape‐scale approach whereby habitat improvement takes place at key sites through partially overlapping protected area management and AESs. To investigate whether site protection and AESs improve the conservation status of breeding waders and how these interact, we partially repeated a 2002 survey of breeding waders on protected areas (nature reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest) and sites with wader‐specific AES options in England in 2009 and 2010. We then assessed the individual and combined effects of these delivery mechanisms on field occupancy, breeding density and population change of four species of declining wader (Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Eurasian Curlew Arquata numenius and Common Redshank Tringa totanus). Although results for Curlew differed from the other species, in general field occupancy was positively influenced by conservation delivery mechanisms, with the highest occupancy and breeding densities on land where site protection was combined with wader‐specific AES options. Field occupancy varied between different types of AES, with higher occupancy associated with higher‐level options in fields, particularly those on nature reserves. Outside nature reserves, the history of AES management did not influence wader populations, but within nature reserves and on fields that gained AES management between 2002 and 2009–2010, populations of Curlew and Snipe were more likely to have persisted and population change in Snipe and Lapwing was more positive. We conclude that the conservation of breeding waders will be most effective when site protection and AES management are combined on the same land. Using limited AES money to support management for breeding waders on, around and between the existing network of protected sites will protect remaining populations while presenting opportunities for population expansion in future.

170 years of Latham’s Snipe Gallinago hardwickii arrivals in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory show no change in arrival date

An understanding of migration phenology is critical to the conservation of long-distance migrants. Latham’s Snipe Gallinago hardwickii is a cryptic, dispersed migratory wader that breeds in northern Japan during the austral winter and migrates to Australia for the non-breeding period. Records of this species for New South Wales (NSW) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) were extracted from a range of data sources including hunting reports, the Atlas of Living Australia, eBird and citizen science records, generating a dataset of first-arrival dates for 170 years (1846–2016). The first record in each year, corresponding to the expected arrival period of Latham’s Snipe on southward migration, was used to infer the date of first arrival. These dates were analysed using simple linear regression against Julian day to test the hypothesis that changes in climate (i.e. increasing mean annual temperature) might result in a corresponding shift in arrival dates. The mean Julian day of first arrivals in NSW and the ACT was 14 August ± 9 days, with no significant change over the 170-year span of records. This suggests that migration phenology of Latham’s Snipe has not been strongly influenced by changing large-scale climatic conditions at either the breeding or non-breeding grounds.

Melanin‐based coloration covaries with fluctuating asymmetry, nutritional state and physiological stress response in common snipe

Adaptative significance of melanin‐based coloration in birds remains poorly recognized. It has been suggested that genes responsible for melanin synthesis may have pleiotropic effect on several physiological and behavioural functions, including immune defence. For this reason, we could expect that the expression of melanin‐based plumage coloration should covary with different condition‐related phenotypic traits via regulation of pathogen/parasite resistance. The aim of this study was to test this hypothesis in common snipe Gallinago gallinago, a species that exhibits conspicuous variation in the black eumelanism of underwing plumage. The study was conducted in central Poland, where common snipe were captured during autumn migration. We found that after accounting for the effects of age, sex and date of capture, underwing coloration correlated with nutritional state of snipes, as more extensively melanised individuals had higher plasma concentrations of triglycerides, total protein and albumin. Dark underwing coloration was also associated with lower heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio, suggesting better resistance of eumelanic individuals to physiological stress. Finally, adult males with darker underwings had lower asymmetry in wing shape (wingtip convexity), which indicated their higher developmental stability. In conclusion, melanin‐based coloration may be considered an honest indicator of phenotypic quality in common snipe.

The Occurrence of Two Allopatric SnipeGallinagospp. in the Azores Islands

The Azores archipelago is located in the North Atlantic, consequently observations of birds of both Palearctic and Nearctic origin are not rare there. We evaluate the local occurrence of two allopatric snipe, the common snipe Gallinago gallinago and Wilson's snipe G. delicata. A hurdle model for fortnightly snipe counts on Säo Miguel Island suggests an arrival of foreign birds in October-November. Morphological characteristics were used to identify both snipe species among birds shot during hunting seasons on Pico and São Miguel Islands. The Nearctic Wilson's snipe is an annual winter visitor to the archipelago, representing from 8% of the hunting bags on Pico up to 56% on São Miguel. Further studies, using emerging technologies, may shed light on the origin of the migratory birds and their interaction with the local common snipe breeders.

Population‐wide body mass increment at stopover sites is an unreliable indicator of refuelling rates in migrating waders

Estimates of refuelling rates in migrating waders are best based on intra‐seasonal recaptures of individually marked birds. This method, however, has methodological problems associated with capture effects and difficulties in attaining sufficient sample sizes. An alternative method had been proposed whereby refuelling rates are approximated by the body mass increment from the slope of the regression between body masses of all birds caught at a site and date. We investigated the appropriateness of this indicator with a simulation study in non‐synchronized migratory species (i.e. arrivals and departures of individuals at the stopover site are not synchronized). Simulation results indicated that the mass increment across the population may be used as an approximation of refuelling rate only in populations with low turnover rates (percentage of birds arriving at/departing from stopover site per day <2%) and ideally with constant numbers of staging birds. The mass increment of non‐synchronized populations with moderate or high turnover rates (higher than 5%) depends mainly on body masses of arriving birds and is not indicative of the individual rate of refuelling. The results of the simulation study were confirmed with empirical data gathered from Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola and Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago during their autumn migration at a stopover site in Poland. The population mass increment methods considerably underestimated refuelling rate obtained from the recapture‐based approach of individual birds in both species. As a consequence, we suggest that population mass increment should not be used as an indicator of refuelling rates in non‐synchronized stopover populations of migrating waders.

Documentation of avian diversity of Khaparwas Bird Sanctuary in Jhajjar district in Haryana, India

Khaparwas is a designated Bird Sanctuary under the administrative control of Wildlife Department of Government of Haryana in India vide notification dated 27th March, 1991. Its total area is 204.36 Acres. During the study period of four years (1997-2002), a total of 164 species of birds belonging to 16 Orders, 44 families were recorded from the Khaparwas bird Sanctuary in Jhajjar district in Haryana, India. Out of 164 species of birds, 104 species were residents, 45 species were winter migratory, 9 species of birds local migratory, 5 species were summer migratory and one species of bird was Straggler. In so far as, Abundance Status is concerned, 64 species of birds were Occasional, 60 species Common and 40 species were Uncommon. Birds like Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa, Jungle Bush Quail Perdicula asiatica, Red Jungle Fowl Gallus gallus, Eurasian Curlews Numenius arquata, Eurasian Eagle Owl Bubo bubo, and Stork Billed Kingfisher Halcyon capensis were observed as specific to this area. Prominent migratory birds like Northern Shoveller Anas clypeata, Northern Pintail Anas acuta, Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope, Garganey Anas querquedula, Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha, Common Teal Anas crecca, Common Pochard Aythya ferina, Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus, Eurasian Curlew, Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago and Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia were recorded in winter season only. In view of the present studies, it is strongly recommended that Khaparwas Bird Sanctuary in Jhajjar district in Haryana must be conserved in a better way, due to its proximity to Bhindawas Bird Sanctuary and Keoldeo National Park in Rajasthan and the rich avian diversity observed in present studies. Khaparwas has the potential to occupy a National Character as a Sanctuary.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ijls.v6i1.5597

Greater impacts of wind farms on bird populations during construction than subsequent operation: results of a multi‐site and multi‐species analysis

Summary1. There has been a rapid increase in the development of renewable energy because of the need to combat climate change. One of the most widely used technologies has been onshore wind farms. These have the potential to affect birds through disturbance or collision, but the extent to which such developments cause general population declines, and therefore are of wider conservation concern, remains largely untested.2. Monitoring data from wind farms located on unenclosed upland habitats in the UK were collated to test whether breeding densities of upland birds were reduced as a result of wind farm construction or during wind farm operation.3. Data were available for ten species although none were raptors. Red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, snipe Gallinago gallinago and curlew Numenius arquata densities all declined on wind farms during construction. Red grouse densities recovered after construction, but snipe and curlew densities did not. Post‐construction curlew densities on wind farms were also significantly lower than reference sites. Conversely, densities of skylark Alauda arvensis and stonechat Saxicola torquata increased on wind farms during construction.4. There was little evidence for consistent post‐construction population declines in any species, suggesting for the first time that wind farm construction can have greater impacts upon birds than wind farm operation.5. The impacts of wind farms were largely unaffected by technical specifications (turbine height, number or total generating power) and therefore are widely applicable.6. Synthesis and applications. This study confirms that regulatory authorities and developers should particularly consider the likely impacts of wind farms on large waders. Greater weight should be given to the effects of construction on wildlife in impact assessments than at present. Mitigation measures during construction, including restricting construction activity to non‐breeding periods, should be considered and tested as a means to reduce these negative effects.

Vodne ptice in ujede Cerkniškega polja (južna Slovenija) v letih 2007 in 2008, s pregledom zanimivejših opazovanj do konca leta 2010 / Waterbirds and raptors of Cerknica polje (southern Slovenia) in 2007 and 2008, with an overview of interesting observations till the end of 2010

Between the end of February 2007 and mid-February in 2008, 73 systematic surveys of waterbirds and raptors were carried out during 10-day periods at Cerknica polje (Southern Slovenia). The main objectives of our research were: to ascertain the abundance and temporal dynamics of the species occurring here, to specify their status, to make a comparison with the past period of systematic data gathering in the 1991-1992 period, to present estimates of the breeding, migrating and wintering populations, as well as to make, on these bases, a nature-conservancy evaluation of the area. Other ornithological data, acquired till the end of 2010, were gathered as well. Between the beginning of May and the beginning of September 2007, the water in the area virtually ran dry (it was retained only in the channels of the streams), while the surface itself was partially or fully icebound from mid-November 2007 till the beginning of February 2008. By the end of 2010, a total of 129 waterbird and raptor species were recorded at Cerknica polje, while in the 2007-2008 period 83 were registered. Dynamics of the species occurrence with more than nine observations made in the area is presented in a greater detail in the species overview. The breeding status was held by 27 bird species, while further seven were forage guests that bred in the vicinity of the study area. Most of the species (118) had the status of passage visitor, whereas those with the status of summer visitor (34) and winter visitor (40) were fewer. Among the recorded species, 34 were accidental and 21 rare visitors. There were 16 winter and seven summer residents, while year-round residents were six. In all 10-day periods of the research period, four species were recorded: Mallard Anas plathyrhynchos, Grey Heron Ardea cinerea, Buzzard Buteo buteo and Kestrel Falco tinnunculus. In more than 90% of 10-day periods, the Great Egret Ardea alba was recorded as well. In the 2007-2008 period, two species were eudominant (Mallard 27.2%, Buzzard 10.1%), whereas another two were dominant (Garganey Anas querquedula 7.4%, Coot Fulica atra 6.4%). Most individuals were registered at the end of March and in early April (up to 1,978 ind.), whereas the greatest numbers of species (48) were recorded in mid-April. Between May and August, the numbers of individuals and species were low owing to the dried up lake. The smallest area of occurrence was occupied by the Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo and a group of ducks of the genera Aythya, Bucephala and Mergellus. Gulls, egrets, herons, waders, harriers Circus sp. and the Red-footed Kestrel Falco vespertinus occurred in the greater part of the research area. 10 breeders fulfilled the criteria of the species of the greatest conservation importance, two of which (Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca and Curlew Numenius arquata) are species of global conservation concern, whereas seven are of conservation concern on a European scale. Among non-breeders, 14 waterbird species and raptors occurred in significant numbers (> 0.1% biogeographical population), five of which occurred at least occasionally with more than 1% of their biographical population. Two species (Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena and Snipe Gallinago gallinago) breed in Slovenia only at Cerknica polje, while further six species have here at least 40% of their Slovenian breeding population

Multiple habitat associations: the role of offsite habitat in determining onsite avian density and species richness

Many animal populations continue to decline despite occurring in protected areas or on sympathetically managed sites. Frequently, this is because a specific habitat patch may not fulfil all the niche requirements of a threatened species. For instance, species often move between, and make use of, multiple habitat types for breeding, roosting and feeding within the same landscape. These cross‐habitat interactions present a challenge for conservation. Here we quantify how the habitat associations of individual species and assemblages occurring within two distinct but adjacent habitat types (moorland and farmland) determine a suite of density and richness indicators, using the bird community of the English uplands as a case study. There was a clear association between onsite avian density and richness and offsite habitat structure (e.g. vegetation height, percent cover of dominant plant species, land management practices). Although such effects are not universal across all species and assemblages, where present (for five farmland and three moorland indicators) the increase in explanatory power offered by including offsite habitat structure can be large. By constructing scenarios of possible changes to management practice on both moorland and farmland, we demonstrate a real conservation benefit can be obtained by altering management in offsite habitats. For example, reducing burning intensity on moorland can result in a five‐fold increase in snipe Gallinago gallinago density on farmland, without an alteration in farmland habitat. For one species (Eurasian curlew Numenius arquata), we demonstrate the frequency with which birds move between and utilise farmland and moorland during the breeding season, and therefore the importance of both habitat types to maintaining population densities. The multiple habitat dependency phenomenon quantified here is common and not restricted to birds. The successful conservation of many threatened species will thus depend on coordinated cross‐habitat management.

Diet of short-eared owls <i>Asio flammeus</i> over seven winters in County Cork, Ireland

Previous studies of short-eared owl Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan) diet in Ireland have all been relatively small in scale and restricted in time. A total of 759 prey items were recovered and identified for this study during six winters (2005/2006-2010/2011). A further 271 prey items collected by the same authors in 2004/2005 for a previous study makes this the largest body of work on the prey of short-eared owls carried out in Ireland to date at 1030 prey items. Bird prey made up 55.9% by number and 83.1% by weight, and mammal prey made up 42.4% by number and 16.9% by weight. Thirteen invertebrates were also recovered. Dunlin Calidris alpina (L.) was the most frequently taken bird species, followed by snipe Gallinago gallinago (L.) and redshank Tringa totanus (L.). Together, these three wading birds formed 62.2% of prey by weight. Passerine birds were also taken, but only the thrush family ( Turdus spp), collectively, was of any importance at 10.1% of prey by weight. The wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus (L.) was the most frequently taken mammal species (8.2% by weight), while smaller numbers of other rodents and shrews were taken. Dunlin was an important prey species up to February, but declined thereafter, while snipe and redshank remained important throughout the winter. Passerine birds were also taken throughout the period, but their overall contribution was lower than that of wading birds. Brown rats Rattus norvegiens (Berkenhout) and small mammals were taken throughout, but their monthly contribution was generally below 20%, except for one occasion in April in one year. Chi-square tests showed significant differences in some prey species and categories between months and years. While the reasons for some of the differences remain unknown, others are related to prey numbers available in any given month. There is also a suggestion that the severe winter of 2010/2011 influenced the higher than expected number of dunlin, and the lower than expected number of small mammals taken as prey in that winter.

DIET OF SHORT-EARED OWLS ASIO FLAMMEUS OVER SEVEN WINTERS IN COUNTY CORK, IRELAND

Previous studies of short-eared owl Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan) diet in Ireland have all been relatively small in scale and restricted in time. A total of 759 prey items were recovered and identified for this study during six winters (2005/2006-2010/2011). A further 271 prey items collected by the same authors in 2004/2005 for a previous study makes this the largest body of work on the prey of short-eared owls carried out in Ireland to date at 1030 prey items. Bird prey made up 55.9% by number and 83.1% by weight, and mammal prey made up 42.4% by number and 16.9% by weight. Thirteen invertebrates were also recovered. Dunlin Calidris alpina (L.) was the most frequently taken bird species, followed by snipe Gallinago gallinago (L.) and redshank Tringa totanus (L.). Together, these three wading birds formed 62.2% of prey by weight. Passerine birds were also taken, but only the thrush family (Turdus spp), collectively, was of any importance at 10.1% of prey by weight. The wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus (L.) was the most frequently taken mammal species (8.2% by weight), while smaller numbers of other rodents and shrews were taken. Dunlin was an important prey species up to February, but declined thereafter, while snipe and redshank remained important throughout the winter. Passerine birds were also taken throughout the period, but their overall contribution was lower than that of wading birds. Brown rats Rattus norvégiens (Berkenhout) and small mammals were taken throughout, but their monthly contribution was generally below 20%, except for one occasion in April in one year. Chi-square tests showed significant differences in some prey species and categories between months and years. While the reasons for some of the differences remain unknown, others are related to prey numbers available in any given month. There is also a suggestion that the severe winter of 2010/2011 influenced the higher than expected number of dunlin, and the lower than expected number of small mammals taken as prey in that winter.