Smoky Hill River Research Articles

Variations of Runoff in the High Plains Section of the Smoky Hill Drainage, 1951-1980

The Thiessen polygon method for determining effective uniform depth of precipitation is used to calculate annual precipitation over the Upper Smoky Hill drainage area. Annual stream discharge data are also expressed as uniform depths, enabling simple derivation of the runoff ratio in percent. Temporal variations in precipitation, runoff, and runoff ratio are illustrated and described statistically. Cumulative values of precipitation and runoff are plotted as a double-mass curve in order to show progressive decline in the runoff ratio. Spatial variations in runoff and runoff ratio are illustrated with comparisons of stream discharge for two parts of the drainage area. Hypothetical conditions which would produce substantial inflow into Cedar Bluff Reservoir are developed. HYDROLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UPPER SMOKY HILL RIVER The High Plains section is here considered to be that part of the Smoky Hill River drainage lying west of Cedar Bluff Reservoir (see Fig. 1). This designation corresponds to physiographic classifications used by Schoewe (1949, fig. 22) and the Kansas Water Resources Board (1962, fig. 3). For convenience, the High Plains section will also be referred to as the Upper Smoky Hill drainage. In terms of water resources, the significance of the High Plains section is greater than its size might suggest--about one-quarter of the entire Smoky Hill drainage. Inflow into Cedar Bluff Reservoir has decreased substantially since 1965 and, since 1980, contents of the reservoir have averaged about 13 percent of the designed level. Consequently, releases of water from the reservoir to entities with established water rights were discontinued, beginning in 1979. The Smoky Hill valley downstream from Cedar Bluff Dam is the next link in the domino effect. The absence of any surface or subsurface water movement past the dam, in combination with discharge from municipal, irrigation, industrial, and domestic wells and a hot, dry summer in This content downloaded from 157.55.39.116 on Sun, 18 Sep 2016 06:41:47 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 1020W 10OW 1000W Stratton Goodland Burlington 071 Oakley S.Quinter Wakeeney S390N itt U _ d -rea~ Pn CO.l-. I S r-.IS Russell _ , edao Cheyenn Wellsl Sharon Springs Springs ELKADR C BI. 2-NEAR;* . _... Jerome eservoar -I; M_rd ,.. ealI y Utica Rans a om S ,intermittent Ladder Cr U iaRstre a r n ? perennial Ness City 0 Leoti Scott City drainage divide <USGS stream gaging station 5 0 25 50 miles o weather station * undrained, shallow depression Fig. 1. Smoky Hill drainage basin, high plains. z z *-)

Diatoms from Streams in Ellis and Russell Counties, Kansas

Ninety-one taxa of diatoms are reported from four streams in Ellis and Russell counties in west-central Kansas. A survey of diatoms from west-central Kansas was initiated in 1979 with collections made at several localities on an irregular basis. A list of taxa from benthic samples collected in Big Creek, Saline River, Salt Creek, and Smoky Hill River in Ellis and Russell counties has been compiled. The only known report published previously that includes diatoms from streams in this study area is that of Czarnecki and Reinke (1981) who identified nine taxa from Salt Creek. McFarland (1959) included six taxa of diatoms in his thesis on the algae of Trego and Ellis counties, and some of the samples collected at that time were examined during this study. In the study area, Big Creek, Saline River, and Smoky Hill River are similar physically and chemically. The pH is between 7.0 and 8.5, and specific conductance is between 500 and 3000 micromhos per centimeter. Salt Creek has a similar pH, but is unique among the four streams surveyed because of its greater specific conductance which has been as high as 20,000 micromhos per centimeter on collection dates. METHODS AND MATERIALS Diatoms were collected from stream substrates of rock, concrete, mud, and submerged plant material. Hard surfaces were scraped and vacuumed with disposable pipettes. Disposable pipettes also were used to collect diatoms from the surface of mud and submerged plant material. Samples were cleaned with hot sulfuric acid as described by Lind (1979). Part of each sample was mounted permanently with Hyrax (Custom Research and Development, Inc., Auburn, California) for study with a light microscope. Some samples were mounted on coverslips for examination with an International Scientific Instruments SX-30 scanning electron microscope. Material from this survey is housed at Fort Hays State University. References by Patrick and Reimer (1966, 1975), Hustedt (1927-1966, This content downloaded from 207.46.13.187 on Sun, 15 May 2016 04:31:52 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms VOLUME 89, NUMBERS 3-4 163 1930), Schmidt et al. (1874-1959), and slides in the herbarium at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia were used to identify most of the taxa. Drs. Ruth Patrick and Charles Reimer from the Academy of Natural Sciences confirmed some identifications. Hydrogen ion concentration was determined with a Beckman Electromate pH meter and specific conductance was tested with a Yellow Springs Instruments Model 33 S-C-T meter at 25 degrees C. Values obtained on collection dates and unpublished data collected previously were used in conjunction with data published in U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Data for Kansas (1964-1983) to delimit the general ranges given for pH and specific conductance. The six localities from which diatom samples were collected for this survey are described below, as is the locality cited by Czarnecki and Reinke (1981). The site numbers listed with the collection localities are used in the list of taxa (Table 1) to indicate where each taxon was collected. Reference slides of each habitat sampled at a collection site are listed with the localities. Saline Basin, Saline River; Ellis Co., Kansas, 16 mi N and 5 mi E of Hays, 4th bridge E of U.S. 183 on FAS 235 (NW1/4 Sec. 17, Ti IS, R17W); 30 Jun 1979. Site Number 1. Slides 19 through 23--silt substrate in small, isolated pool along edge of stream, surface debris behind (upstream of) fallen branches, and muddy stream bottom. Saline Basin, Saline River; Ellis Co., Kansas, 15.5 mi N and 1 mi E of Hays, U.S. 183 bridge (Sec. 15, TllS, R18W); 27 Feb 1980. Site Number 2. Slides 29 and 30-backwater around concrete bridge support; diatoms collected from concrete. Saline Basin, Salt Creek; Russell Co., Kansas, 4.5 mi N and 3.25 mi W of Russell (NE/4 Sec. 6, T13S, R14W); 13 Jul 1979. Site Number 3. Compiled from Czarnecki and Reinke (1981). Saline Basin, Salt Creek; Russell Co., Kansas, 4.5 mi N and 3.5 mi W of Russell (SE4 Sec. 6, T13S, R14W); 12 Jun 1980. Site Number 4. Slides 147 through 152-backwater at concrete bridge support; diatoms collected from fallen, submerged vegetation. Smoky Hill Basin, Big Creek; Ellis Co., Kansas, Fort Hays State University campus (SE1/4 Sec. 32, T13S, R18W); 21 Feb 1980 and 12 Mar 1980. Site Number 5. Slides 24 and 25 standing water of original channel of Big Creek at old boat landing between Custer Hall and Sheridan Coliseum; diatoms collected from concrete surface in water below 1-2 inches of ice cover (21

Aquatic Macroinvertebrates and Fishes of Big Creek in Trego, Ellis, and Russell Counties, Kansas

Seven taxa of aquatic invertebrates and 27 species of fish are reported from a biological survey of Big Creek in Trego, Ellis, and Russell counties, Kansas conducted during 1983 and 1984. The present fauna is compared to previous faunal surveys. A biological survey of Big Creek was conducted in Trego, Ellis, and Russell counties, Kansas during 1983 and 1984. The objective of the study was to determine the species of fish and selected taxa of aquatic invertebrates that inhabit the stream and to compare this information with previous accounts published since 1870. The channel of Big Creek originates in northwestern Gove County and courses to the southeast through Trego, Ellis, and southwestern Russell counties where it joins the Smoky Hill River. The portion of the channel that normally has flowing water in the spring extends from central Trego County through Ellis County to the confluence with the Smoky Hill River. Big Creek is an intermittent stream, and during the summer, fall, and early winter, the stream often is composed of isolated pools throughout most of its length. The bottom substrate is sand, silt, or gravel. The pH varies from 7.0 to 8.5 and specific conductance usually is between 280 and 2150 micromhos per centimeter at 25 degrees C (U.S. Geological Survey, 1964-1975, 1970-1983; Kansas Fish and Game Comm., 1979). A relatively large dam at Ellis in western Ellis County impounds approximately 100 surface acres of water when the pool is full and provides a unique habitat on the stream for some species of fish and other aquatic organisms that would otherwise be absent from Big Creek. Smaller dams and low-water bridges have been built in the area from Hays, in central Ellis County, to southwestern Russell County. These structures create pools of water in the summer and fall which enable fish and other organisms to survive in the creek as water levels decline, but the dams also have the This content downloaded from 157.55.39.231 on Wed, 05 Oct 2016 04:30:18 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms VOLUME 89, NUMBERS 3-4 147 Table 1. Species of macroinvertebrates from Big Creek previously reported and collected during the 1983-1984 survey. Previous reports 1983-1984 survey

A Model Study of Salt-Water Intrusion to a River Using the Sharp Interface Approximation

Between Salina and Enterprise, Kansas, the salinity of the Smoky Hill River increases sharply. As a result, the river downstream at various times exceeds the recommended drinking-water-quality standards for chloride. The Smoky Hill and Kansas Rivers are important sources of water for several population centers in eastern Kansas. Therefore, this problem has an impact on a significant part of the Kansas population. The source of the saline water is predominantly from ground-water dissolution of the Hutchinson Salt Member of the Wellington Formation of Permian age. The dissolution of the salt has caused a north-south trending collapsed zone called the Wellington aquifer to occur along the present eastern extent of the salt. A confining shale layer exists between the Smoky Hill alluvium and the Wellington aquifer in most areas. However, between New Cambria and Solomon, Kansas, the layer is thin and fractured, allowing the salt water to move up into the alluvium. The steady-state model presented in this study indicates that the salt-water layer of the alluvium in the Smoky Hill River valley should be in an unstable condition near the river. This indicates that unstable interface upconing should be a dominant mechanism for supplying salt water to the river system. The time-varying model shows that the response of the chloride discharge to a flood event can be qualitatively explained by the unstable interface upconing mechanism. As the river stage rises, the salt-water intrusion declines. As the river stage declines, the salt-water intrusion increases beyond its normal value and subsides to the normal value over the period of a few months if no new flood events occur. During rising river stage, the river is supplying the ground-water system, and the salt-water intrusion or unstable upconing is shut off. During falling river stage, bank storage and perhaps an elevated water table cause the fresh ground-water discharge to be greater than normal, which in turn causes greater than normal salt-water intrusion. In addition, the time-varying model shows that several years would elapse before significant benefit would be seen in the river system from a proposed Wellington aquifer relief-well scheme.

Late Kansan Faunas from Central Kansas

Fossil molluscs and mammals were studied from four late Kansan faunas (Cedar Bluff Canal, Holzinger, Tobin, Wilson Valley) recovered from alluvial fill deposits along the Saline and Smoky Hill river valleys in central Kansas, for which, primarily, only faunal lists had been published more than 25 years ago. A review of the original collections, plus subsequently collected materials, allows us to add 35 taxa to the faunas (9 to Cedar Bluff Canal, 11 to Holzinger, 6 to Tobin, 9 to Wilson Valley). Paleoclimatic inferences drawn from analysis of the faunas suggests that Kansas enjoyed its coolest climate during the time these faunas lived. In addition the central part of the state enjoyed more effective precipitation than at present. Data from the Trego County faunas, which are superposed, suggests a slight warming trend as Gastrocopta cristata and G. procera are present in the younger fauna (Holzinger), whereas Vertigo modesta is present in the older fauna (Cedar Bluff Canal). This relationship plus the presence of G. procera in the Wilson Valley local faunas and the unsubstantiated report of V. modesta in the Tobin local faunas suggests that although the faunas fall within the late Kansan stage they may differ in absolute age among themselves and from the Cudahy local faunas. In an attempt to extend the faunal sequence established by the late Claude W. Hibbard for southwestern Kansas, individuals and field parties from Fort Hays State University have been exploring the late Cenozoic deposits in central Kansas along and between the Smoky Hill and Saline river valleys. Fossils from this area had been collected by parties from the Kansas Geological Survey in the 1930's, but had been subjected to little detailed study. In the course of this work, additional vertebrate material has been obtained

New County Records of Amphibians and Reptiles in Kansas

New County Records of Amphibians and Reptiles in Kansas

Nitrate and Phosphate: Time-Trend Concentrations in Selected Kansas Streams

A review of the historical data (Water Quality Records) for 13 Kansas streams draining different parts of the state was made to determine: (1) whether an increase in the NO3or P04-3 concentrations of these streams has occurred, (2) the rates of increase, and (3) whether the data can be used to provide guides for future trends. Nitrate and phosphate data are scarce for Kansas streams and only the post-1961 water year data for NO3and the post-1965 water year data for PO4-3 were deemed usable. Data indicate that the mean yearly NO3concentrations of the Republican, Smoky Hill, Arkansas, Little Arkansas, Verdigris, and Neosho rivers are increasing. The maximum rate of NO3increase is 0.50 ppm per year measured for the Arkansas River at Dodge City, Kansas. Regressions also indicate that the mean yearly P04-3 concentrations of the Republican and Arkansas rivers are increasing at the rate of 0.02 and 0.06 ppm per year, respectively. The mean yearly NO3concentrations of all Kansas streams studied are well below the 45 ppm combined NO3and NO2(-10 mg/l P), but the NO3and CO2 levels of these streams are too low to produce eutrophication of unimpounded water. Nitrate and phosphate levels in the Kansas and Marais de Cygnes rivers seem to be decreasing. The time-trend data examined suggest that future rates of NO3and P04-3 increase should not exceed those presently observed.

Mammals of the Duck Creek Local Fauna, Late Pleistocene of Kansas

The Duck Creek local fauna, recovered from a gravel pit near the Smoky Hill River, Ellis County, Kansas, contains the southwestern-most record of Synaptomys borealis and Clethrionomys gapperi . Other remains include species of Sorex, Sylvilagus, Lepus, Spermophilus, Geomys, Thomomys, Peromyscus, Microtus, Ondatra , and Mustela . A late Pleistocene age for the fauna is suggested by the evolutionary grade of Ondatra and Microtus , and preferred habitats and geologic ranges of extant species. Recovery of the fauna from the Pfeifer terrace (mapped as Illinoian) and a comparison with selected Pleistocene plains faunas indicates the Duck Creek local fauna is of Illinoian age. Habitat requirements of extant species in the fauna suggest there are two biotic communities present:—moist-riparian and upland.

Re-Discovery of the Shovelnose Sturgeon in the Arkansas River of Kansas

The shovelnose sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Rafinesque), has been reported or collected at various localities in the Missouri, Kansas, Republican, Blue and Smoky Hill rivers in northeastern Kansas (Cross, 1967, Cross and Collins, 1975). No extant specimens of this species are known from the western portion of the Kansas River system, nor from the Arkansas, Neosho and Cimarron rivers in the southern half of the state. Bandel (1932) reported seining from the Arkansas River near the Kansas-Oklahoma border (Cowley County) on 2 July 1857. Cross (1967) cited this 1857 account, noted that anglers reported catching sturgeons rarely in the Arkansas River, and stated that the nearest published locality based on specimens was to the south in Oklahoma. Thus to date no extant specimens of Scaphirhynchus platorynchus exist from the rivers of southern Kansas. On 13 May 1976 a single adult male Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist. #16427) was taken on hook and line by Murray Dennis (Wichita). The specimen was caught in the Wichita Valley Center Floodway (which connects to the Arkansas River) within the northwestern city limits of Wichita, Sedgwick County, Kansas, and is 59 cm in standard length. The specimen represents the first authenticated record of this species for the Arkansas River in Kansas. Considering the extent of habitat alteration and pollution which has taken place in the Arkansas River in the last decade alone, the presence of this fish within the city limits of Wichita is rather surprising. I wish to thank Victor B. Eichler of Wichita State University for securing the specimen from Mr. Murray Dennis. My thanks also to Frank B. Cross, Delphi Messinger, P. A. Mills and Randall E. Moss for their helpful assistance.

The Duck Creek Molluscan Fauna (Illinoian) from Ellis County, Kansas

A late Pleistocene molluscan fauna containing 35 species is reported from sediments deposited by the ancestral Smoky Hill River in Ellis County, Kansas. The presence of Pisidium compressum and Sphaerium striatinum within cross-bedded sands indicates a perennial stream with some current action, while the abundance of Valvata tricarinata suggests the stream was lake-like in places. The abundance of several strictly woodland species, such as Cionella lubrica, suggests that a continuous stand of trees bordered the stream, while valley slopes were possibly covered with grasses and scattered trees. Likewise, cooler summers and winters than at present are indicated for Ellis County at the time these taxa lived by the predominance of species with a northern distribution. The climatic implications of the molluscs, faunal comparisons with other molluscan faunas, and the topographic position of the deposits suggest an Ilminoian age for the fauna. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., Vol. 78 (1-2), 1975.

Monogenean and Copepod Parasites of Fishes from the Smoky Hill River, Ellis County, Kansas

Fifteen species of fishes from the Smoky Hill River, Ellis County, Kansas were examined for monogenetic trematodes and copepods. Of the 107 fishes examined, 60 (56.1 %) were infected with at least one species of ectoparasite. Twenty-six species of parasites were found on the 15 host species. Generally, the host species which inhabited pools or backwater areas were more heavily infected than those which inhabited the main channel, indicating that current may be an important factor in limiting large* parasite populations on some stream fishes. Some of the parasites found in this survey are of economic importance because they may cause host mortalities. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., Vol. 77 (4), 1974.

Some Limnological Features of Cedar Bluff Reservoir, Trego County, Kansas

Some Limnological Features of Cedar Bluff Reservoir, Trego County, Kansas

Growth and Condition of the Carp and the River Carpsucker in an Altered Environment in Western Kansas

This study was designed to assess the populations of the carp, Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, and the river carpsucker, Carpiodes carpio (Rafinesque), in Cedar Bluff Reservoir, and the Smoky Hill River, west-central Kansas. Three variables-(1) growth rate, (2) condition factor, and (3) percentage fat content-were used to evaluate the two populations. Data were collected from the spring of 1967 to the fall of 1968. Mean calculated lengths of carp at different ages in the reservoir were comparable to lengths of fish in the river. The growth of the carpsucker was slightly greater in the reservoir than in the river. The condition coefficients of carp in the river were significantly higher than those of carp in the reservoir, but no significant differences existed between carpsucker in the two environments. The percentage fat content of carp from the river was significantly greater than that in the carp from the reservoir, but the percentage fat content of the carpsucker from the two environments was not significantly different. The higher fat content and the more robust condition of the carp in the river indicated that this environment was more suitable than the reservoir for this species. The slightly increased growth rate of the carpsucker in the reservoir and the similarity of the other data imply that the reservoir may be a slightly more suitable habitat than the river for this species.

Age and Growth of the Channel Catfish in the Smoky Hill River of Western Kansas

The stream in the study area meandered through a wide river bed of shifting sand. It svas typically shallow, with an occasional hole about one meter deep and a normal flow of about 20 cfs. River conditions were llsually stable, protected from flooding by Cedar Bluff Reservoir a short distance upstream. Catfish were collected by electroshocking; aged by sectioning a pectoral spine, and their growth determined by calculating lengths from nzeasurements of spine annuli. The spine radius (mm) and total fish lengi (mm) relationship determined with 386 fish was L 3.27 + 119.61 S. The growth results were obtained from 349 Ssh from ages I through VII. The calculated lengths of the se^Ten age groups were 34, 120, 174, 209, 240, 298 and 336 mm. This was slow growi when compared with lengths of populations from other areas. It was corlcluded Fat slow growth and absence of large fish resulted primarily from ie shifting sandy stream bed hindering bottom fauna production and the absence of deep sheltered holes to protect larger ISsh.

Life History of the Plains Killifish, Fundulus kansae (Garman), in the Smoky Hill River, Kansas

Age and growth, food habits, and reproduction in two populations of plains killifish were studied from November, 1966 through April, 1968 in the Smoky Hill River, Kansas. Two age classes were present, with young-of-the-year comprising a third class in summer. Foods were dipteran larvae, mayfly nymphs, and ostracods. Reproductive activity was similar to that described by others. No significant differences were found in morphology of the two populations. Presence of a “pored” lateral-line series, kyphosis, and pelvic fin reduction are discussed. Parasites were Lernaea, Neascus, Posthodiplostomum, and Ichthyophthirius.

Aspects of the Life History of the Sand Shiner, Notropis stramineus (Cope), in the Smoky Hill River, Kansas

Abstract Seasonal changes in mean egg diameter and gonadal weights indicated that spawning of Smoky Hill River sand shiners occurred May through August, with a peak in August. Mean egg diameter varied seasonally from 207 to 747 µ; mature eggs 650 to 747 µ. Spawning in the hot-dry portion of the summer, water temperature, 21–37 C, apparently enhances the survival of the young; flooding and heavy suspended solids usually characterize early summer river conditions. Spawning fish were of age-classes I and II and averaged 49.1 mm total length. The positive direct-proportion relationship between body weight and fecundity had the equation: Ec = 223.2 + 0.601 W, where Ec is the egg count, and W is the weight of the female in grams. In November-December samples, age-class-0 fish were 31.6 mm mean total length and age-class-I 47.6 mm. The conversion factor for standard length to total length was 1.28 SL. The K factor did not differ significantly between sexes; the overall K factor and 95% confidence limits was 1.66...

Fishes of the Smoky Hill River, Kansas

The ichthyofauna of many major rivers in Kansas, for example, the Neosho and Marais des Cygnes (Deacon, 1961, Wakarusa, Deacon and Metcalf, 1961) and the Big Blue (Minckley, 1959) have been given at least preliminary study. Recently, Metcalf (1966) summarized previous literature and museum collections of fishes from the Kansas River system and has provided distribution maps for 51 species of Eshes. The purpose of the present paper is to describe the kinds, relative abundance, standing crops and seasonal variation in abundance of fishes obtained from 62 collecting trips from eight statiolns on the Smolry Hill River between May, 1965 and August, 1966, in oirder to expand our knowledge of fishes in Kansas and the Great Plains. Also, sections of the Smoky Hill River, above, parallel to and below the Cedar Bluff Irrigation District, are being studied as part of a comprehensive evaluation of possible plesticidal contamination of soil, water, wildlife and fish resulting from intensification of agriculture and increased use of pesticides associated with irrigation in this area.4 Ithis report, therefore, represents a published record of the population composition of the river during the initial stages of development of agricultural irrigation in the Cedar Bluff Irrigation District.

Occurrence of Peromyscus leucopus aridulus in Ellis County, Kansas with Some Notes on Their Activities

The small mammals of Ellis County, Kansas, have been studied by biologists of Fort Hays Kansas State College for several years. However, these studies have been confined largely to the prairies, and have omitted the streambank associations. A recent comparative study of various habitats in the county included a streambank association; there, for the first time in Ellis County, the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) was captured. After the white-footed mouse was found on Big Creek, near the Fort Hays Kansas State College campus, four other areas were trapped, two on the Smoky Hill River and two on the Saline River, to learn if the species occurs elsewhere in Ellis County. The white-footed mouse was captured on both rivers. All individuals captured were assigned to the subspecies aridulus.

Life History of Salt Cedar (Tamarix gallica L.)

Salt cedar (Tamarix gallica L.) a member of the Tamaricaceae family, is a native of the Mediterranean region and has been used extensively in this country as an ornamental shrub (Little 1953; Wilson 1944). It has become established in southern and western United States, where it creates a major water conservation problem. As a result rather extensive work has been done to find effective methods of control, but relatively little is known as to the autecology of the plant. The purpose of this study was to obtain basic information which might lead to more exhaustive studies of the plant. This information may eventually be useful in setting up a long-term control program. Considerable autecological work has been done on various forest trees, including a comprehensive treatise on northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.) (Nelson 1951), but very little literature is available in respect to growth habits and ecological requirements of salt cedar. Embryologic development has been studied by Paroli (1940), who observed two types of embryo sac formation. Joshi and Kajale (1936) described the structure and development of the embryo sac, ovule, and fruit of a related species, (T. dioica Roxb). Ware and Penfound (1949) discussed the germination rate of salt cedar and contrasted some of its habits to those of other species growing on the lower levels of the South Canadian River in central Oklahoma. T. gallica was also included as an important species in the vegetation of a floodplain of the same river (Hefley 1937) and above the Cedar Bluff Dam on the Smoky Hill River in Kansas (Hopkins and Tomanek 1957). Hefley believes that the first salt cedar plants were brought in by Spanish settlers between 300 and 400 years ago.

THE BRAINS OF THE ODONTOGNATHAE

Fossil are now known in such large numbers that they are no more merely contributions to the anatomy of a few extinct vertebrates; some of them have disclosed stages of brain evolution in several ancestral series. Such specimens are not really brains; fossilized brain matter has not been found. vanished brain, however, had moulded the walls of the cranial cavity, so that its form can be reproduced in endocranial of fossil skulls. While in the majority of lower vertebrates the endocranial cast not an exact replica of the brain because the endocranial cavity contains relatively wide circum-cerebral spaces, in most mammals and in all birds the endocranium a tightly fitting bony capsule of the brain and its cast therefore is, to all intents and purposes of macroscopic study, a brain. Most general types of modern birds had evolved by the beginning of the Cenozoic era, almost 75 million years ago. Avian fossils from the preceding Mesozoic era have been discovered only in geographically widely separate spots of the earth, in strata laid down at widely separate times of earth history. Those from the Upper Jurassic of Eichstaitt, Germany, and the Upper Cretaceous of the Smoky Hill River region of Kansas-about 130 and 80 million years old, respectivelyinclude material suitable for paleoneurological study. For 70 years we have had a definite conception of the brains of Hesperornis regalis and Ichthyornis victor. Two brain casts were described and figured by Marsh (1880, pp. 8-10 and 121-125, figs. 1 and 29) in his monograph on the toothed birds of Kansas, Odontornithes, and this tome is still a classic and was and remains one of the best paleornithological works 1 in the opinion of the eminent paleornithologist, Lambrecht (1933, p. 246). descriptions and figures were reprinted in Marsh's 1883 report (pp. 55-57 and 71, figs. 7 and 19). They introduced to the world two endocranial representing brains in an extremely interesting evolutionary stage. The brain of Hesperornis was quite small, and more in type than in any adult bird hitherto examined (p. 8). The brain of Ichthyornis was remarkably small, and in its main features, strongly reptilian (p. 121).