Smart Pest Management Research Articles

Beyond Food: using smart pest management in IoT greenhouses to foster environmental sustainability

Higher yields and year-round crop cultivation are provided by greenhouse farming, but there are drawbacks as well, such as the need to maintain ideal environmental conditions and safeguard crops from pests. Conventional techniques frequently use chemical pesticides, which raises issues for the environment and human health. Through the integration of smart pest management within an Internet of Things (IoT)-powered greenhouse, the “IoT GREEN” project provides a sustainable solution. This creative system monitors important environmental variables including temperature, humidity, light, and soil moisture using wireless sensors and a Raspberry Pi. Farmers are given the ability to remotely monitor their crops thanks to the transmission of real-time data to an open-source cloud server and its visualization via a local web server. Importantly, “IoT GREEN” incorporates smart pest detection, which goes beyond simple monitoring. By identifying possible insect infestations early on and using sophisticated algorithms and picture recognition, this technology enables targeted interventions. “IoT GREEN” reduces dependency on hazardous pesticides by using non-chemical techniques like biocontrol agents or pheromone traps, promoting a more sustainable agricultural ecosystem. In addition to protecting crops, this all-encompassing strategy also fosters biodiversity, lowers environmental impact, and guarantees food safety.

IoT-Based Cotton Plant Pest Detection and Smart-Response System

IoT technology and drones are indeed a step towards modernization. Everything from field monitoring to pest identification is being conducted through these technologies. In this paper, we consider the issue of smart pest detection and management of cotton plants which is an important crop for an agricultural country. We proposed an IoT framework to detect insects through motion detection sensors and then receive an automatic response using drones based targeted spray. In our proposed method, we also explored the use of drones to improve field surveillance and then proposed a predictive algorithm for a pest detection response system using a decision-making theory. To validate the working behavior of our framework, we have included the simulation results of the tested scenarios in the cup-carbon IoT simulator. The purpose of our work is to modernize pest management so that farmers can not only attain higher profits but can also increase the quantity and quality of their crops.

Review on bionomics and management of rice stem borer

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is used as staple food for the overwhelming majority of the world’s population. Rice production hampered mostly by stem borers like, yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas) pink stem borer (Sesamia inference), dark headed stem borer (Chilo polychrysus), stripped stem borer (Chilo suppressalis). For minimize the infestation farmers use different resistant rice cultivars like, TKM 6, PTB 10, Su Yai 20, Mudgo, DV 139, Taitung 16, Gontra Bidhan 3, MTU-2020, IR 50, NDR-97, etc. against stem borer population. For controlling deleterious pest population farmers mostly use insecticide which exhibit good results than any botanicals against rice pests. Other techniques including using microbial pesticides, other biocontrol agents, use of pheromones or allomones, staggered planting, synchronized planting, removal of infected leaves, steams with pruning shears, using of trap crop, etc. are effective for control rice pests. But indiscriminate use of chemical insecticides results in great economic loss with destabilizing of biodiversity and resulting cross resistance against insecticides. So, pest population ecology based sustainable management strategies of such pest species is very essential for climate smart pest management (CSPM) as well as climate smart agriculture (CSA) of rice and other crops in the near future.

Population ecology and economic thresholds-based time series for climate smart pest management of Spilosoma obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) on three sesame cultivars

BackgroundSesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is a widely used oil seed crop throughout the world but its productivity is extremely low due to use of low yielding cultivars as well as biotic stress for the major pest Spilosoma obliqua Walker. But even today, farmers generally use broad-spectrum synthetic pesticides for their management injudiciously without considering any economic threshold (ET) limit and creates ecosystem crisis. So, time-based ecologically sustainable management of the said pest and selection of a superior cultivar of sesame was studied by stage-specific two-sex pooled life table and nutritional ecology of S. obliqua on three sesame cultivars (Rama, Shubhra and Amrit) along with their economic thresholds (ETs) in 2019.ResultsThe nutritional ecology and population dynamics of S. obliqua were significantly affected by the host phytoconstituents in terms of host suitability or susceptibility (Rama > Shubhra > Amrit). The mean EIL and ETL for S obliqua was 36.316 ± 3.911 and 33.243 ± 2.734 pests/m2, respectively on cv. Rama that were significantly (F2,6 = 5.421–5.435; P ≤ 0.042) lower than Shubhra and Amrit. For a single pest per m2 (30 ± 2 plants/m2) the possible time that can be taken to reach EIL (Ti) and ETL (Tt) were 39.132 ± 3.969 and 38.132 ± 3.969 days, respectively on cv. Rama which were also significantly (F2,6 = 26.551; P = 0.001) lower than the other cultivars. The seed yield and benefit cost ratio (BCR) were 857.099 ± 0.000 (Kg/ha) and 0.607 ± 0.000, respectively for cv. Rama that were significantly (P < 0.05) lower than the others.ConclusionsIt will enable growers to find the most preferred cultivar (Rama > Shubhra > Amrit) based on BCR values irrespective of their biotic resistance (Rama < Shubhra < Amrit) due to host antibiosis. Even, the ETs-based time series for judicious management of the pest along with carbon sequestration efficiency (CSE) will also support superiority of the cultivars (Rama > Shubhra > Amrit) towards climate smart pest management (CSPM) of sesame and or other such crops in near future.

Classification and detection of insects from field images using deep learning for smart pest management: A systematic review

Insect pest is one of the main causes affecting agricultural crop yield and quality all over the world. Rapid and reliable insect pest monitoring plays a crucial role in population prediction and control actions. The great breakthrough of deep learning (DL) technology has resulted in its successful applications in various fields, including automatic insect pest monitoring. DL creates both new strengths and a series of challenges for data processing in smart pest monitoring (SPM). This review outlines the technical methods of DL frameworks and their applications in SPM with emphasis on insect pest classification and detection using field images. The methodologies and technical details evolved in insect pest classification and detection using DL are summarized and distilled during different processing stages: image acquisition, data preprocessing and modeling techniques. Finally, a general framework is provided to facilitate the smart insect monitoring and future challenges and trends are highlighted. In a word, our purpose is to provide researchers and technicians with a better understanding of DL techniques and their state-of-art achievements in SPM, which can promote the implement of various SPM applications.

Population dynamics and economic thresholds based time series for smart pest management of sesame

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is the oldest and most important oilseed crop throughout the world. But its productivity is extremely low due to several insect pests infesting at various stages of the crop. Pest ecology and economic thresholds (ETs) based time series of six generalist pests, Diacrisia casignetum, Spilosoma obliqua, Spodoptera litura, Spilarctia luteum, Helicoverpa armigera and Plutella xylostella, were determined on sesame during 2018–2020. Their nutritional ecology and population dynamics were significantly affected by the host phytoconstituents. The ETs varied between 4-27insects/m2 for the different insects with H. armigera having the highest ET and S. obliqua with the lowest one. All the production values including benefit cost ratios (BCRs) and carbon sequestration efficiencies (CSEs) were significantly higher in control plants (without any pest) compared to infested plants regardless of insect species. Thus, crop parameters including production values and CSEs were changed according to specific pest infestation depending on their respective food utilization efficiency and population growth rate. Even, this study will also inform about the susceptibility and or severity of sesame cultivar (Rama) towards the selected pests for their judicious management by using ETs based time series to support climate smart pest management (CSPM) of sesame in near future.

Population ecology and ETs based time series for climate smart pest management of Spilosoma obliqua Walker

The two-sex pooled life table of S. obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) was constructed along with their population density and yield loss estimation to determine their economic thresholds (ETs) based time series on two different crops such as sesame (S. indicum; cv. Rama) and green gram (V. radiata; cv. KB-54) in 2019. The population ecology and ETs of S. obliqua were significantly (P&lt;0.05) affected by the host phytoconstituents in terms of host suitability or susceptibility (sesame&gt;green gram). Average EIL and ET for S obliqua was 26.388±1.627 and 24.230±2.412 pests/30 plants, respectively for sesame that were insignificantly (F1,4=2.794-3.335; P≥0.142) differed from the green gram. For a single pest per m2 (30±2 plants/m2) the possible time that can be taken to reach EIL (Ti) and ET (Tt) were 38.246±1.157 and 37.246±1.157 days, respectively on sesame which were significantly (F1,4=24.111; P=0.008) lower than green gram. Even, ETs based time series was also calculated to find the specific time (Tt days) to reach ET for any number of pest(s) on the selected crops for time based management. The benefit cost ratio (BCR/ha) of sesame and green gram was 0.478 and 0.390, respectively with significant (P&lt;0.05) deviation. The carbon sequestration efficiency (CSE) of sesame (301.860 kg/ha) was significantly (P&lt;0.05) higher than green gram (172.260 kg/ha) due to more biomass production. These findings will obviously help farmers to choose sesame as a suitable trap crop for green gram on the basis of pest attraction or susceptibility, ETs based time series, BCR values (sesame&gt;green gram) as well as CSE for climate smart pest management (CSPM) by applying appropriate control measures judiciously if required within the time limit to reach the ETs as in time series for sustainable climate smart agriculture (CSA) of such crops in near future.

Overview: biotic signalling for smart pest management.

Biotic signalling refers to species or phylogenetic-clade-specific signals that elicit adaptive and acceptable responses within and among organisms. It is not only the molecular basis of the ecological relationships among different species, such as parasitism, symbiosis and predation, but also serves as ideal targets that can be used to manipulate these ecological relationships. This concept was proposed by a group of scientists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and actively pursued in a five-year research project in 2014 funded by the CAS ($40 million), entitled 'Decoding biotic interactions and mechanism for target management of agricultural pests'. The multi-disciplinary project aimed at a systematic investigation of the intra-species and inter-species and interactions via biotic signalling, with the ultimate goal being the development of novel methods to manage the pest insects and diseases. We hereby propose a topic 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest control' as a theme issue for the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. It contains a total of 18 reviews and research articles under the topic of signalling manipulation for pest management. Unravelling these complex interactions among plants, microbial pathogens and insects holds promise for developing novel strategies to protect crop plants without compromising agricultural productivity and environmental health. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

Armet, an aphid effector protein, induces pathogen resistance in plants by promoting the accumulation of salicylic acid.

Effector proteins present in aphid saliva are thought to modulate aphid–plant interactions. Armet, an effector protein, is found in the phloem sap of pea-aphid-infested plants and is indispensable for the survival of aphids on plants. However, its function in plants has not been investigated. Here, we explored the functions of Armet after delivery into plants. Examination of the transcriptomes of Nicotiana benthamiana and Medicago truncatula following transgenic expression of Armet or infiltration of the protein showed that Armet activated pathways associated with plant–pathogen interactions, mitogen-activated protein kinase and salicylic acid (SA). Armet induced a fourfold increase in SA accumulation by regulating the expression of SAMT and SABP2, two genes associated with SA metabolism, in Armet-infiltrated tobacco. The increase in SA enhanced the plants' resistance to bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae but had no detectable adverse effects on aphid survival or reproduction. Similar molecular responses and a chlorosis phenotype were induced in tobacco by Armet from two aphid species but not by locust Armet, suggesting that the effector function of Armet may be specific for aphids. The results suggest that Armet causes plants to make a pathogen-resistance decision and reflect a novel tripartite insect–plant–pathogen interaction.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management’.

Genome editing for plant disease resistance: applications and perspectives.

Diseases severely affect crop yield and quality, thereby threatening global food security. Genetic improvement of plant disease resistance is essential for sustainable agriculture. Genome editing has been revolutionizing plant biology and biotechnology by enabling precise, targeted genome modifications. Editing provides new methods for genetic improvement of plant disease resistance and accelerates resistance breeding. Here, we first summarize the challenges for breeding resistant crops. Next, we focus on applications of genome editing technology in generating plants with resistance to bacterial, fungal and viral diseases. Finally, we discuss the potential of genome editing for breeding crops that present novel disease resistance in the future. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

Enhancement of oxidative stress contributes to increased pathogenicity of the invasive pine wood nematode.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play important roles in defence response of host plants versus pathogens. While generation and detoxification of ROS is well understood, how varied ability of different isolates of pathogens to overcome host ROS, or ROS contribution to a particular isolate's pathogenicity, remains largely unexplored. Here, we report that transcriptional regulation of the ROS pathway, in combination with the insulin pathway, increases the pathogenicity of invasive species Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. The results showed a positive correlation between fecundity and pathogenicity of different nematode isolates. The virulent isolates from introduced populations in Japan, China and Europe had significantly higher fecundity than native avirulent isolates from the USA. Increased expression of Mn-SOD and reduced expression of catalase/ GPX-5 and H2O2 accumulation during invasion are associated with virulent strains. Additional H2O2 could improve fecundity of Bu. xylophilus. Furthermore, depletion of Mn-SOD decreased fecundity and virulence of Bu. xylophilus, while the insulin pathway is significantly affected. Thus, we propose that destructive pathogenicity of Bu. xylophilus to pines is partly owing to upregulated fecundity modulated by the insulin pathway in association with the ROS pathway and further enhanced by H2O2 oxidative stress. These findings provide a better understanding of pathogenic mechanisms in plant-pathogen interactions and adaptive evolution of invasive species. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

The oriental armyworm ( Mythimna separata) feeding induces systemic defence responses within and between maize leaves.

Maize ( Zea mays) is a staple cereal crop cultivated all over the world but that is threatened by various insects. Feeding of the lepidopteran insect Mythimna separata triggers defence signalling and increases anti-herbivore benzoxazinoids (Bxs) in the insect-damaged maize leaves. However, the herbivory-elicited within-leaf and leaf-to-leaf systemic signalling in maize remains largely unexplored. Here, we show that simulated M. separata herbivory and mechanical wounding elicited increased levels of jasmonic acid (JA), JA-Ile (JA-isoleucine conjugate) and Bxs in the damaged areas and in specific systemic regions within a leaf. Importantly, increased contents of Bxs were detected in a systemic leaf, and consistently, this leaf exhibited increased defence against M. separata. Increased JA/JA-Ile and altered transcriptome, including Bx biosynthesis genes, were detected in systemic leaves after wounding or simulated herbivory treatments, although only simulated herbivory induced increase of the contents of Bxs systemically. Promoter and co-expression analysis revealed that transcription factors bHLH57 and WRKY34 may regulate Bx biosynthesis genes in systemic leaves. Moreover, leaf ablation experiment indicated that the systemic signal rapidly exited the local leaves within 30 min after elicitation. This study provides new insight into the temporal and spatial regulation of defence responses of maize against lepidopteran insects. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

Signal pathways involved in microbe-nematode interactions provide new insights into the biocontrol of plant-parasitic nematodes.

Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) cause severe damage to agricultural crops worldwide. As most chemical nematicides have negative environmental side effects, there is a pressing need for developing efficient biocontrol methods. Nematophagous microbes, the natural enemies of nematodes, are potential biocontrol agents against PPNs. These natural enemies include both bacteria and fungi and they use diverse methods to infect and kill nematodes. For instance, nematode-trapping fungi can sense host signals and produce special trapping devices to capture nematodes, whereas endo-parasitic fungi can kill nematodes by spore adhesion and invasive growth to break the nematode cuticle. By contrast, nematophagous bacteria can secrete virulence factors to kill nematodes. In addition, some bacteria can mobilize nematode-trapping fungi to kill nematodes. In response, nematodes can also sense and defend against the microbial pathogens using strategies such as producing anti-microbial peptides regulated by the innate immunity system. Recent progresses in our understanding of the signal pathways involved in microbe-nematode interactions are providing new insights in developing efficient biological control strategies against PPNs. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

A whitefly effector Bsp9 targets host immunity regulator WRKY33 to promote performance.

Whiteflies, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera), are pests causing economic damage to many crops, capable of transmitting hundreds of plant vector-borne viruses. They are believed to secrete salivary protein effectors that can improve vector colonization and reproductive fitness in host plants. However, little is known about effector biology and the precise mechanism of action of whitefly effectors. Here, we report a functional screening of B. tabaci salivary effector proteins (Bsp) capable of modulating plant innate immunity triggered by plant endogenous pattern peptide Pep1. Four immunity suppressors and two elicitors were identified. Bsp9, the most effective immunity suppressor, was further identified to directly interact with an immunity regulator WRKY33. We provide evidence that Bsp9 may suppress plant immune signalling by interfering with the interaction between WRKY33 and a central regulator in the MAPK cascade. The interference by Bsp9 therefore reduces plant resistance to whitefly by inhibiting activation of WRKY33-regulated immunity-related genes. Further detailed analysis based on transgenic plants found that whitefly effector Bsp9 could promote whitefly preference and performance, increasing virus transmission. This study enriches our knowledge on insect effector biology.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management’.

Unveiling the function and regulation control of the DUF3129 family proteins in fungal infection of hosts.

Many prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins contain domains of unknown function (DUFs). A DUF3129 family of proteins is widely encoded in the genomes of fungal pathogens. A few studies in plant and insect pathogens indicated that the DUF3129 genes are required for fungal penetration of host cuticles with an unclear mechanism. We found that a varied number of DUF3129 proteins is present in different fungal species and the proteins are evolutionarily diverged from each other at the inter- and intra-specific levels. By using the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii as a model, we performed experiments and found that the seven DUF3129 proteins encoded by this fungus are localized to cellular lipid droplets (LDs). Individual deletion of these genes did not affect fungal formation of the infection structure appressoria and the accumulation of LDs in fungal conidia. When compared with the wild-type (WT) strain, insect bioassays revealed that the virulence of most null mutants were significantly impaired during topical infection but not during injection of insects. Carbon starvation and the subsequent Western blot analysis indicated that the LD-specific perilipin protein was completely degraded in the WT cells whereas varied levels of perilipin could be detected in the mutant cells, which signified that depletion of LD content was delayed in mutant cells, and DUF3129 proteins are therefore involved in LD degradation. We also provided biochemical evidence that these DUF3129 genes are transcriptionally regulated by a yeast Ste12-like transcription factor. The findings of this study not only unveil the function of DUF3129 proteins but also better understand the diverse mechanism of fungus-host interactions. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

Early signalling mechanisms underlying receptor kinase-mediated immunity in plants.

Pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), which are single transmembrane proteins belonging to the receptor-like kinase (RLK) and receptor-like protein (RLP) super families, sense microbe- and host-derived molecular patterns to activate immune responses in plants. PRRs associate with co-receptors, scaffold proteins and receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases (RLCKs) to form immune receptor complexes at the cell surface, allowing activation of cellular responses upon perception of extracellular ligands. Recent advances have uncovered new mechanisms by which these immune receptor complexes are regulated at the levels of composition, stability and activity. It has become clear that RLCKs are central components directly linking PRRs to multiple downstream signalling modules. Furthermore, new studies have provided important insights into the regulation of reactive oxygen species, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascades and heterotrimeric G proteins, which has not only deepened our understanding of immunity, but also expanded our view of transmembrane signalling in general. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

Interaction of viral pathogen with porin channels on the outer membrane of insect bacterial symbionts mediates their joint transovarial transmission.

Many hemipteran insects that can transmit plant viruses in a persistent and transovarial manner are generally associated with a common obligate bacterial symbiont Sulcia and its β-proteobacterial partner. Rice dwarf virus (RDV), a plant reovirus, can bind to the envelope of Sulcia through direct interaction of the viral minor outer capsid protein P2 with the bacterial outer membrane protein, allowing the virus to exploit the ancient oocyte entry path of Sulcia in rice leafhopper vectors. Here, we show that RDV can hitchhike with both Sulcia and its β-proteobacterial partner Nasuia to ensure their simultaneous transovarial transmission. Interestingly, RDV can move through the outer envelope of Nasuia and reside in the periplasmic space, which is mediated by the specific interaction of the viral major outer capsid protein P8 and the porin channel on the bacterial outer envelope. Nasuia porin-specific antibody efficiently interferes with the binding between RDV and the Nasuia envelope, thus strongly preventing viral transmission to insect offspring. Thus, RDV has evolved different strategies to exploit the ancient oocyte entry paths used by two obligate bacterial symbionts in rice leafhoppers. Our results thus reveal that RDV has formed complex, cooperative interactions with both Sulcia and Nasuia during their joint transovarial transmission. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

Cross-talking between baculoviruses and host insects towards a successful infection.

Baculoviridae is a family of large DNA viruses that infect insects. They have been extensively used as safe and efficient biological agents for the control of insect pests. As a result of coevolution with their hosts, baculoviruses developed unique life cycles characterized by the production of two distinctive virion phenotypes, occlusion-derived virus and budded virus, which are responsible for mediating primary infection in insect midgut epithelia and spreading systemic infection within infected insects, respectively. In this article, advances associated with virus-host interactions during the baculovirus life cycle are reviewed. We mainly focus on how baculoviruses exploit versatile strategies to overcome diverse host barriers and establish successful infections. For example, in the midgut, baculoviruses encode enzymes to degrade peritrophic membranes and use a series of per os infectivity factors to initiate primary infection. A viral fibroblast growth factor is expressed to attract tracheoblasts that spread the virus for systemic infection. Baculoviruses use different strategies to suppress host defence systems, including apoptosis, melanization and RNA interference. Additionally, baculoviruses can manipulate host physiology and induce 'tree-top disease' for optimal virus replication and dispersal. These advances in our understanding of baculoviruses will greatly inform the development of more effective baculoviral pesticides. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

A fungal milRNA mediates epigenetic repression of a virulence gene in Verticillium dahliae.

MiRNAs in animals and plants play crucial roles in diverse developmental processes under both normal and stress conditions. miRNA-like small RNAs (milRNAs) identified in some fungi remain functionally uncharacterized. Here, we identified a number of milRNAs in Verticillium dahliae, a soil-borne fungal pathogen responsible for devastating wilt diseases in many crops. Accumulation of a V. dahliae milRNA1, named VdmilR1, was detected by RNA gel blotting. We show that the precursor gene VdMILR1 is transcribed by RNA polymerase II and is able to produce the mature VdmilR1, in a process independent of V. dahliae DCL (Dicer-like) and AGO (Argonaute) proteins. We found that an RNaseIII domain-containing protein, VdR3, is essential for V. dahliae and participates in VdmilR1 biogenesis. VdmilR1 targets a hypothetical protein-coding gene, VdHy1, at the 3'UTR for transcriptional repression through increased histone H3K9 methylation of VdHy1. Pathogenicity analysis reveals that VdHy1 is essential for fungal virulence. Together with the time difference in the expression patterns of VdmilR1 and VdHy1 during fungal infection in cotton plants, our findings identify a novel milRNA, VdmilR1, in V. dahliae synthesized by a noncanonical pathway that plays a regulatory role in pathogenicity and uncover an epigenetic mechanism for VdmilR1 in regulating a virulence target gene. This article is part of the theme issue 'Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management'.

A gossypol biosynthetic intermediate disturbs plant defence response.

Plant secondary metabolites and their biosynthesis have attracted great interest, but investigations of the activities of hidden intermediates remain rare. Gossypol and related sesquiterpenes are the major phytoalexins in cotton. Among the six biosynthetic intermediates recently identified, 8-hydroxy-7-keto-δ-cadinene (C234) crippled the plant disease resistance when accumulated upon gene silencing. C234 harbours an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl thus is a reactive electrophile species. Here, we show that C234 application also dampened the Arabidopsis resistance against the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola (Psm). We treated Arabidopsis with C234, Psm and (Psm+C234), and analysed the leaf transcriptomes. While C234 alone exerted a mild effect, it greatly stimulated an over-response to the pathogen. Of the 7335 genes affected in the (Psm+C234)-treated leaves, 3476 were unresponsive without the chemical, in which such functional categories as ‘nucleotides transport’, ‘vesicle transport’, ‘MAP kinases’, ‘G-proteins’, ‘protein assembly and cofactor ligation’ and ‘light reaction’ were enriched, suggesting that C234 disturbed certain physiological processes and the protein complex assembly, leading to distorted defence response and decreased disease resistance. As C234 is efficiently metabolized by CYP71BE79, plants of cotton lineage have evolved a highly active enzyme to prevent the phytotoxic intermediate accumulation during gossypol pathway evolution.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Biotic signalling sheds light on smart pest management’.