Smallholder Pig Farms Research Articles

Utilisation of labour among pig farmers in northern Uganda

In many sub-Saharan countries, pig (Susscrofa domesticus) production is increasingly an important food security and income generating activity for smallholder farmers. This is attributed to the high prospects for vigilance of the pork market, driven by urbanisation, population growth and dietary transition towards more animal protein per capita. Therefore, increasing pig production is one of the viable pathways to get smallholder farmers out of poverty and food insecurity. Although there are extensive studies about the elements of pig production, such as feeding, breeding and space requirements; little work has been done on distribution of innovation behaviour and the socio-economic factors that influence labour utilisation in the region. The objective of this study was to determine the socio-economic factors that influence labour (family or hired) utilisation and distribution of innovation behaviour among pig farmers in Northern Uganda. Through a cross sectional survey and descriptive analysis, we characterised smallholder pig farmers in the northern Uganda by type of labour used for pig production, and explored the distribution of the dimensions of innovation behaviour (exploration, experimentation, adaptation and modification) among them. Results revealed that young educated farmers with non-farm employment, a smaller household size, belonging to a farmer group and who had many pigs were more likely to use hired labour than those with counter characteristics. There were significant differences in the number of farmers who exhibited the different dimensions of innovation behavior. Therefore, interventions to boost pig production through the use of hired labour should consider the socio-economic differences among farmers which determine labour constraints they face.

Utilisation of labour among pig farmers in northern Uganda

In many sub-Saharan countries, pig (Susscrofa domesticus) production is increasingly an important food security and income generating activity for smallholder farmers. This is attributed to the high prospects for vigilance of the pork market, driven by urbanisation, population growth and dietary transition towards more animal protein per capita. Therefore, increasing pig production is one of the viable pathways to get smallholder farmers out of poverty and food insecurity. Although there are extensive studies about the elements of pig production, such as feeding, breeding and space requirements; little work has been done on distribution of innovation behaviour and the socio-economic factors that influence labour utilisation in the region. The objective of this study was to determine the socio-economic factors that influence labour (family or hired) utilisation and distribution of innovation behaviour among pig farmers in Northern Uganda. Through a cross sectional survey and descriptive analysis, we characterised smallholder pig farmers in the northern Uganda by type of labour used for pig production, and explored the distribution of the dimensions of innovation behaviour (exploration, experimentation, adaptation and modification) among them. Results revealed that young educated farmers with non-farm employment, a smaller household size, belonging to a farmer group and who had many pigs were more likely to use hired labour than those with counter characteristics. There were significant differences in the number of farmers who exhibited the different dimensions of innovation behavior. Therefore, interventions to boost pig production through the use of hired labour should consider the socio-economic differences among farmers which determine labour constraints they face.

The role of animal breeding with special regard to native pigs of food supply and rural development in Laos

The present paper explored the influence of breeding native pigs on livelihood conditions and the contribution of native pigs to the rural development and rural poverty reduction in the rural areas of Lao PDR. Pig production plays an important role in meat supply for both urban and rural areas of Laos. It is clear that most of the pig products in the country come from smallholder pig farms, and more than 90 percent of those products are the native pigs mostly raised by farmers in remote areas. In general, livestock production distributed between 15–18 percent to GDP, while most of animal production still remains as the traditional methods. Rural development is always the first priority of the Laos government since its independence in 1975, however, the poverty rate in rural areas remained high at 23% in 2018. It might block the development goal of the government which will lead the country out of the least development status by 2020. The food security and malnutrition in the rural or mountainous areas are considered as the majority issue that both government and several international organizations have been thriving hard to overcome, which researchers showed that more than 45% of children under 5 years of age were stunted, and 28% of them were underweight. Inspired of more than 50 % of the households in the rural areas of Laos reported they consumed chicken and pork at least one day a week. While native pigs play an important role on meat supply, it also constituted around 9–14 % of annual income of the households in rural areas. Therefore, the increase the production of pigs and poultry is one option to promote the meat supply to households in the rural areas of Laos. This paper will be a pathway to guide and identify for the final decision to what experiment will be implemented on Lao native pig in Laos (2021–2023) to complete the comparative study on reproductive physiology and reproductive management methods of Hungarian and Lao Indigenous pig breed. Which found it still needs further afford to research and improve more about native pig performance for all areas of productive and quality management.

Impact of participatory training of smallholder pig farmers on knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding biosecurity for the control of African swine fever in Uganda

We evaluated the impact of a participatory training of pig farmers on knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of biosecurity relating to ASF control in two districts of Uganda using a randomized control trial (RCT). A total of 830 pig farmers from 32 villages were included in the study, with 425 farmers receiving training, while 405 did not. An item response theory model was used to assess the impact of the training on farmer's KAP. Logistic regression models were used to assess the factors that affected knowledge gain and change in attitude and practices after training. Focus group discussions (FGD) were carried out with selected farmers from the treatment group at the end of the intervention, to share their experiences and discuss potential factors that could hinder adoption of biosecurity in their communities. Results of the regression analyses showed that there was a significant effect of biosecurity training (p = .038) on gain in knowledge after 12 months, but there were limited changes in farmer's attitude and practice at 12 and 28 months after training. Pig production domain (peri‐urban/urban production), group membership, gender (male) and education of the farmer positively influenced knowledge gain and attitude of farmers towards biosecurity. This paper provides empirical evidence on the impact of training intervention on biosecurity practices for disease prevention or control. In addition, it breaks down the components of the biosecurity practices and documents the specific challenges to its uptake by the farmers. It therefore relaxes the assumption of knowledge constraint as a barrier to uptake. The results clearly show that knowledge is not the binding constraint to uptake of the biosecurity interventions.

Profit Efficiency of Smallholder Pig Farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya

The aim of this study was to determine the profit efficiency of the smallholder pig farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya. The study carried out a census of 80 smallholder pig farmers. The data was collected with the help of semi-structured interview schedule. The study found out that five farms had profit efficiency score of 1 thus they were efficient while the rest were inefficient. The most inefficient farm had inefficiency level of 0.005, thus had to reduce input costs by 99.5% in order to acquire its target value. The mean profit efficiency results were 40% implying that efficiency level could be increased by 60% through reducing the excess inputs used and better use of available resources. This would be acquired if good management practices and marketing channels are adopted. The average input slack value of 1208 which means farmers had a chance of reducing their input costs by this amount per year without compromising their output. Benchmarks can be established from the best practices farms which can be used as a package for enhancing and stabilizing profit efficiencies of smallholder pig farmers which in turn could help improve the Kenya economy. The study also recommends policy interventions pertaining to pig enterprise inputs, marketing issues and financial products in order to improve pig farmers’ livelihoods. Keywords: Small Holder Farmers, Profit Efficiency, Data Envelopment Analysis, Decision Making Unit DOI: 10.7176/JESD/11-10-16 Publication date: May 31 st 2020

Analyzing risk factors for herd seropositivity to classical swine fever in West Timor, Indonesia

A cross-sectional study was undertaken to identify factors associated with herd-level seropositivity to Classical Swine Fever (CSF) in smallholder pig farms in West Timor, Indonesia. Questionnaires were distributed to 240 pig farmers from 8 villages in two districts to collect information about farm structure and herd information, reproductive management and performance, husbandry, pig introductions and exits, health status, farmers' knowledge and history of vaccination. Three risk factors were found to be associated with the presence of antibodies to CSF in the herd in a multivariable logistic regression model. Seropositivity was associated with the introduction of pigs in the 12-month period preceding the survey (OR 4.78, 95% CI: 1.46, 15.71). Farmers who kept goats were 3.42 (95% CI: 1.20, 9.81) times more likely to have seropositive pigs than farmers without goats. Herds that had been vaccinated against CSF were also 2.33 (95% CI: 1.10, 5.12) times more likely to be seropositive than non-vaccinated herds. This latter positive association is likely to be as a result of antibodies induced by vaccination rather than a true risk factor for infection. The results of the questionnaire highlighted the lack of implementation of biosecurity measures by smallholder farmers in West Timor, which has the potential to increase the risk of their pigs to CSF, as well as other diseases.

Understanding Antibiotic Residues and Pathogens Flow in Wastewater from Smallholder Pig Farms to Agriculture Field in Ha Nam Province, Vietnam.

Background:Contact with livestock wastewater on farms and in communities can pose a risk to human and animal health.Methods:This cross-sectional study was conducted in 180 households and 24 pig farms (96 wastewater samples) to explore information about pig production, livestock waste management, antibiotic use, and to analyze antibiotic residues and microbial contamination, respectively.Results:Of the 120 households raising pigs, biogas systems were the most commonly used to treat animal waste (70%), followed by compositing (19%), and the remaining respondents discharged waste directly into drains or ponds (11%). The majority of respondents (78%) used antibiotics to treat and prevent disease in pigs, but 32% of them did not know of any disadvantages of antibiotic abuse. ELISA assays were performed on half of the wastewater samples (n = 48), demonstrating that residues of flouroquinolones and sulfonamides were present in 6.3% (3/48) and 22.9% (11/48) of tested samples, respectively. The average residual level of sulfamethazine was 27.8 ug/l. Further, E. coli concentrations exceeding regulatory levels in Vietnam were found in nearly all samples. Salmonella spp. was also found in 57.3% of samples, though prevalence rates varied across the different sites. Finally, G. lamblia was found in 8.4% of samples, and C. parvum was found in 5.2% of samples.Conclusions:This study suggests that livestock wastewater carried potential harmful pathogens and antibiotic residues that could come into contact with humans in the community. Thus, appropriate operation and application of livestock wastewater treatment (such as biogas or composting) and management should be a continued focused.

Smallholder pig farming education improved community knowledge and pig management in Angónia district, Mozambique.

Education on pig farming has been recognized as an important method of transferring knowledge and improving production among smallholder pig producers in rural settings, but the effectiveness of this in different rural settings remains unknown. A community-based intervention trial on smallholder pig farmers was conducted with the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of pig farming education. Baseline information was collected using interview-based questionnaires and observations regarding pig welfare and husbandry practices followed by participatory pig farming education and field demonstrations. The study was carried out between May 2014 and May 2016 and involved 90 smallholder pig farmers from six villages in Angónia district, of Tete province in Mozambique. The baseline questionnaire among several aspects regarding pig management highlighted that most farmers had an overall knowledge on aspects of transmission (55.1%) and prevention (48.9%) of African swine fever (ASF), porcine cysticercosis (PC) transmission (8.2%), and field diagnosis (36.7%), and they were not aware of the zoonotic potential of PC or the basic husbandry procedures of pigs kept under permanent confinement. Forty-nine of the 90 farmers enrolled, participated in the pig farming education, which provided the basis for making a comparison between trained (54%) and non-trained (46%) pig farmers. Since knowledge for ASF transmission (P < 0.036), pig pen design (P < 0.014), reasons for confine the pigs (P < 0.016), as well as the adoption of the new introduced pig pen model (P < 0.025), and the practices of acceptable, good hygiene of the pig pen (P < 0.009 and P < 0.014, respectively), improved significantly in both groups, a remarkable spill-over was observed, proving villagers capable of transferring knowledge within the villages. However, water provision and total confinement in both groups were still not practiced by the most farmers following the pig farming education (P > 0.174 and 0.254). It is concluded that despite improved knowledge, the farmers failed to follow several recommendations, most likely due to poverty such as lack of basic resources like food and water, which even the farmers themselves lacked for their day to day living.

English

The present study was conducted to analyse the factors influencing the success of artificial insemination (AI) in pigs using extended fresh semen in rural smallholder pig farms. One hundred female pigs from Rulindo and Gicumbi districts in Northern Region of Rwanda were artificially inseminated using locally collected and extended fresh semen. The pregnancy was confirmed by using both no returns to estrus and abdomen palpation at 21 and two and half months post insemination, respectively. The factors influencing the success of AI were analysed using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test. The results showed that the number of inseminations per conception (IC) and litter size were 1.89 &plusmn; 0.83 and 7.94 &plusmn; 2.24, respectively. The number of AI per conception was significantly influenced (p &lt; 0.05) by intrinsic factors (age and parity of the female pig) and extrinsic factors (sex, age and education of household head, time of AI and distance between the farm and semen collection center). The litter size was significantly influenced (p &lt; 0.05) by parity. From the results, we recommend establishing more semen production centers and providing more training on pig management and AI. Key words: Inseminations per conception, litter size, swine, fresh semen, smallholder farms, natural oestrus. &nbsp

Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths and parasites in smallholder pigs reared in the central Free State Province.

Pigs are kept by farmers as a source of livelihood and food. Unfortunately, helminthiasis and other internal parasites are major setbacks to profitable pig production in Africa. There is a lack of information on the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal helminths and parasites plaguing resource-poor pig farmers in the Free State. Knowledge of these endemic parasites can be used as baseline data to help design future intervention plans. The aim of this study was to identify and quantify the types of gastrointestinal helminths and parasites prevalent in smallholder pigs reared in the central Free State Province. Faecal samples were randomly collected from 77 pigs and parasitologically analysed. Quantification was done using the McMaster counting technique. Farming system, age, gender and health status were the risk factors considered. The study was conducted between January and March 2016. Overall, results showed that 61 samples (79.2%) tested positive for one or more gastrointestinal parasites, which were observed as single or mixed infections. Amongst the positive samples, 44.5% were infected with Ascaris suum, 50.6% with Trichuris suis, 26.0% and 72.7% were infected with Oesophagostomum dentatum and coccidia, respectively. There were significant differences (p < 0.05) between the rate of infection in the intensive and semi-intensive systems and between the dewormed and non-dewormed pigs. Piglets and female pigs recorded a higher prevalence in their categories. Pigs excreted mostly low (eggs per gram [EPG] ≤ 100) to moderate (EPG > 100 < 500) levels of helminth eggs. It is concluded that different species of gastrointestinal parasites are present in most pigs reared by smallholder farmers in this study area.Keywords: gastrointestinal helminths and parasites; smallholder pig farmers; pigs; prevalence; Central Free State Province.

Socio-economic and technical characteristics of pig (&lt;i&gt;Sus scrofa domesticus&lt;/i&gt;) production system in the humid forest with monomodal rainfall agroecological zone of Cameroon

Pig production has become a great source of income and employment in Sub-Saharan countries and Cameroon in particular. However, many pig farmers face difficulties as the production system has not been improved everywhere. Hence, the present study was conducted in other to assess the socio-economic and technical characteristics of pig production system in the humid forest with monomodal rainfall agro-ecological zone of Cameroon. For this purpose, a total of 45 smallholder pig farmers were selected using a snow ball test from the study zone and investigated. A structural questionnaire was used to interview the pig farmers. Data generated included: socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, housing, breeding, feeding, health care, management practices and challenges in pig production. The data collected were analyzed by descriptive statistics. The study revealed that most of the respondents (62.2%) were male and 35.6% were between 40-69 years old. 82% of the pig farmers were married and all (100%) were Christians. With regards to education, only 4.4% of the farmers had no formal education while 55% had an experience of 10 years in pig farming. Majority of the farmers (44.4%) jointly reared cross (exotic x local), local and exotic pigs. 57.8% of farmers feed their pigs with compounded feed associated with kitchen and farm residues twice daily, morning and evening in feeding through mostly made of plastic materials (37.8%). 84.44% of farmers housed their pigs to avoid destruction and diseases (64.44%). Piggeries were mostly made of wood (60.0%) and had concrete floors (57.8%). However, 22.2% of farmers practiced free range production system. The farmers mostly practiced free will (55.6%) and group mating and delivery takes place in the herd (62.2%). 77.8% of the farmers faced health problems and 91.1% considered pig farming to be profitable. The main challenges faced by farmers were disease outbreak and expensive feed cost (22.2%). Although pig production is profitable, there is no ready market. Nevertheless, pig production has a positive impact in the lives of rural dwellers.Keywords: Socio-economic, pig farmers, Production system, Cameroon.

Awareness of porcine helminthiasis and the prevalent farm management operations among smallholder pig farmers in the Free State

Awareness of porcine helminthiasis and the prevalent farm management operations among smallholder pig farmers in the Free State

Understanding ASF dynamic in South Africa: from spatio-temporal analysis at national level to fine special network analysis.

Since the first probable ASF outbreak occurred in the Koedoesrand Ward in 1926, South Africa has experienced many other outbreaks that can be divided temporally into 2 time periods; the period before the development of the OIE disease database and the period after. More than 143 outbreaks of swine fever were reported during the first period but not all were clearly defined as classical swine fever (CSF) or ASF. Since the development of the OIE disease database (1993), 72 outbreaks directly involving 2968 cases mainly in smallholder pig farms were reported. Outbreaks occurred mainly in Northern provinces part of the control zone defined in 1935. Since 2012, outbreaks tended to be more likely to occur in the free zone. In order to better understand the context in which African Swine Fever (ASF) outbreaks occurred in South Africa we described temporal, spatial distribution of reported ASF outbreaks in South Africa and examined spatio-temporal structure of ASF outbreak clusters in South Africa. Multi-Distance Spatial Cluster Analysis was used to assess the spatial clustering using ArcGIS 10.6, spatiotemporal clusters analyses were carried out using the R package splancs and scanning was utilised to identify spatiotemporal clusters of the disease using SaTScan. A specific focus was the particular zone of Northern Kwa-Zulu Natal (NKZN) bordering Mozambique and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) defined by the zoning policy as a control zone. A spatialized social network analysis was used in order to assess the relevance of this zoning as no ASF outbreak was ever reported. Pig movement patterns were analysed using Social Network analysis (SNA) in R software. This network was georeferenced and a map of pig movements was produced. In the second phase farms, origins and destinations were grouped by villages and the villages represented the nodes of the network while directed arcs referred again to pig movement. Sociograms or link graphs were drawn using the igraph package in R. At national level ASF outbreaks exhibit statistically significant clustering while the interaction between time and space have shown qualitatively a negative space-time interaction that was significant at month scale (p=0.003) but not significant at year scale (p= 0.577). Different spatial and temporal clusters (2 up to 5 clusters) associated to high-rate ASF outbreaks were detected, always including municipalities located in both control and free zones (p<0.001). Thus, surveillance strategies should be applied not only to the control zone but rather in all areas identified as high risk areas. Our study provided evidence of an extensive pig network connecting all villages in the rural control area in NKZN. The SNA revealed that pigs are not only bought and sold within these closely linked villages but stock is brought from as far as 500km within South Africa and from Mozambique where ASF is endemic and regularly reported. In terms of sale, pig transactions occurred beyond the ASF control zone without any official permits. Despite the absence or very low prevalence of the diseases, proximity with endemic countries in addition to lack of such records of pig movements place the zone at an increased risk of introduction and spread of ASF and therefore confirmed the relevance of the current zoning policy. Understanding the social networks that drive observed movements enable the state veterinarian to implement effective interventions in case of an outbreak or for prevention sensitisation. Such sensitisation in addition to a real enforcement of the law (pigs kept in pens, animals and animal movements records) would allow countries such as South Africa to protect their investments by practicing disease control and surveillance i.e. their zoning policy. In addition, further studies should be implemented in order to evaluate the presence of ASF sylvatic cycle in transboundary protected areas, in order to finalize the assessment of the status of this zoning policy.

In the search for low-cost year-round feeds: Pen-level growth performance of local and crossbred Ugandan pigs fed forage- or silage-based diets versus commercial diet

Smallholder pig farmers in East Africa report that lack of feed, seasonal feed shortages, quality and cost are key constraints to pig rearing. Commercially prepared pig diets are too expensive and people and pigs compete for food. Smallholder farmers typically feed nutritionally unbalanced diets, resulting in low average daily gain (ADG) and poor farmer profits. Our objective was to compare the ADG of Ugandan pigs fed forage- or silage-based or commercial diets. Ugandan weaner-grower pigs were randomly assigned to forage- or silage-based diets or commercial diet. Pigs were weighed every 3 weeks from 9 to 32 weeks of age. Pen-level ADG and feed conversion were compared across diets using multiple linear regression. The ADG of pigs fed forage- or silage-based diets was lower than those fed commercial diets between 9 and 24 weeks of age ( p < 0.05). Between 28 and 32 weeks, pigs fed forage-based diets had lower ADG than those on other diets ( p < 0.05). Least squares mean ADG (g/pig/day) for pigs fed forage- or silage-based diets or commercial diet were 36, and 52, and 294 respectively at 9–15 weeks; 163, 212, 329 at 15–19 weeks; 112, 362, 574 at 20–24 weeks and 694, 994, and 1233 at 28 to 32 weeks of age. It was concluded that forage- and silage-based diets are unsuitable for small, newly weaned pigs. Feeding forage- or silage-based diets to finishing pigs is more suitable. Forage- and silage based diets are year-round low-cost pig-feeding strategies that will improve the growth performance of East African pigs, thereby increasing pig farmer income and food security.

Impact of on-farm feeding practices on the reproductive indices of pigs reared under educated smallholder system in Imo State, Nigeria

The aim of this study was to determine the impact of on-site feeding practices on the reproductive indices of pigs reared under educated smallholder system in Imo State, southeastern Nigeria. The smallholder pig farms (S1, S2, M, L1, and L2) visited were divided into small-, medium-, and large-size farms, with small farms stocking 70-80, medium 120-130, and larger 230-270 pigs. In each farm, six weaner pigs comprising Large White, Landrace, and Duroc breeds were selected and their ages and initial body weights determined. The feeds offered to the weaner pigs were physically characterized for their ingredient components. Thereafter, representative samples of the feeds were subjected to proximate biochemical analysis on the 1st, 7th, and 13th weeks of the study using standard methods. Results showed that all the farms utilized palm kernel cake as their major energy feedstuffs, in addition to soybean, common salt, local fish meal, and vitamins premix. Data generated were analyzed using analysis of variance and descriptive statistics (mean and percentages). The mean crude protein values of the feed samples collected from these farms were of similar range (13.49-14.20%), while crude fiber and ether extract values were very high. Data on calculated metabolizable energy values were also relatively low for growing pigs. There was significant (p < 0.05) differences in the final body weights of the grower pigs after 14weeks of feeding across the farms. There were significant (p > 0.05) changes in weight gain, with farms S1, S2, M, L1, and L2 returning 24.50, 10.00, 67.50, 11 00, and 7.50kg mean weights, respectively. There is a slight increment in birth weight of piglets in farms S1, S2, M, and L2 when compared with those in farm L1. Direct observations revealed that farms S1, L1, and L2 practiced flushing techniques which invariably resulted in higher litter size recorded in these farms. The dams in farms S1, L1, and L2 were observed to gain more weight during gestation and shed little during lactation.

Prevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis by Lingual Examination in Smallholder Pig Farms in Kiambu, Kenya

Prevalence of Porcine Cysticercosis by Lingual Examination in Smallholder Pig Farms in Kiambu, Kenya

Piloting the effectiveness of pig health education in combination with oxfendazole treatment on prevention and/or control of porcine cysticercosis, gastrointestinal parasites, African swine fever and ectoparasites in Angónia District, Mozambique.

A community-based intervention combining health education (HE) and treatment of pigs for control of porcine cysticercosis (PC), gastrointestinal (GI) helminths, African swine fever (ASF) and external parasites was tested involving six villages of resource-poor smallholder pig farmers. Farmers and pigs of six rural villages were randomly allocated into group 1 (HE), which served as controls, and group 2 (HE + OFZ) pigs received a single oral dose of 30mg/kg OFZ. Farmers were trained in pig health, housing and feeding. The proportion of farmers with confined pigs, the adoption rate of the introduced pig pen, the sero-prevalence of PC and ASF, the prevalence and intensity of GI nematodes and the prevalence of ectoparasites were measured at 9, 15 and 24months after initiation and compared to a baseline survey to seek the effectiveness of the interventions. There was no clear effect of the intervention on the sero-prevalence of PC, but analysis of the rate of change in prevalence between the two groups showed significant effect with the rate of change to lower prevalence in the HE + OFZ group compared to the HE group. Although HE managed to improve the farmer's knowledge in the control and prevention of ASF and ectoparasites, there was no significant reduction in the sero-prevalence of ASF and the prevalence of ectoparasites throughout the two-year period. The reported ineffectiveness of the intervention in this study suggested that more research is needed to develop more effective methods for controlling PC, ASF and pig parasites.

Men and women farmers\u2019 perceptions of adopting improved diets for pigs in Uganda: decision-making, income allocation, and intra-household strategies that mitigate relative disadvantage

BackgroundThe roles and responsibilities of men and women in east African smallholder pig-raising households and the entitlements each can claim from pig-enterprise income are unknown. The article is a qualitative gender-and-household-head-disaggregated exploration of Ugandan smallholder pig farmers’ perceptions. Asset ownership, control, and access; division of labour; and decision-making related to pig rearing and pig-enterprise income are presented in the context of the potential impact of adopting improved diets for pigs (a productivity improvement).ResultsPotential benefits of improved diet adoption included faster pig growth; increased farmer income and pig population; new on-farm employment and produce market opportunities; and improved pig market opportunities and family- and community-level well-being. Contradictory views about the potential impact of diet adoption on labour requirements and feed costs, and the inclusion of seasonal, home-grown ingredients were expressed. Concerns about people and pigs competing for food and personal safety were also voiced. Women allocated pig-enterprise income to provide for their children, household, and extended family, and spent only the remaining income on themselves. Men allocated income to meet personal needs, and to provide for their children, wife, second wife/family, extended family, and lovers. Men and women in female-headed households (WFHH) had overt decision-making ability over the pig enterprise and pig-enterprise income. Some women in male-headed households (WMHH) had overt decision-making ability over the pig enterprise and pig-enterprise income when their husband allowed it, or failed to provide, or was away. Pig ownership and labour investment by WMHH did not guarantee that women had decision-making ability or benefitted from pig-enterprise income. Some WMHH employed covert strategies which mitigated their relative disadvantage. Threat of domestic violence inhibited the decision-making ability of WMHH. Polygyny reduced intra-household communication transparency.ConclusionsDiet adoption could benefit smallholder pig-raising households and farming communities, but lack of funds and human/pig food competition could limit adoption. Men, WFHH, and some WMHH had overt decision-making ability over the pig enterprise and pig-enterprise income. Men allocated income to benefit themselves, and their multiple families and lovers. Women allocated income to benefit their families and spent only surplus income on themselves. Women employed covert strategies to mitigate their relative disadvantage.

Investigating the financial impact of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome on smallholder pig farmers in Cambodia.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) was first identified in Cambodia in 2010, causing serious problems on affected farms, although the costs of the disease have not been well defined. The household financial impact of a PRRS outbreak in Cambodia was investigated using partial budget analysis, examining the economic benefit of three proposed interventions: (i) quarterly PRRS vaccine use, (ii) biosecurity implementation, and (iii) implementation of vaccination and biosecurity. The analyses were applied to three farm models: (i) a two-sow breeder; (ii) a five-pig fattener; and (iii) a single-sow, three-pig farrow-to-finish/breeder. Data was derived from a knowledge, attitude, and practice survey of 240 smallholder farmers (61 with pigs) from 16 villages across 5 provinces, plus case studies of 12 farmers selected for more detailed financial analysis. The study indicated that financial losses associated with PRRS were severe, with a 25% mean loss to the annual household income of 61 interviewed farmers. Partial budget analysis identified a strongly positive incentive for vaccination and biosecurity to be implemented in combination, with the highest annual net benefit of USD 357.10 realised by the breeder system. However, due to current scarcity of the PRRS vaccine and its high cost to smallholders, biosecurity interventions may be more cost-effective, especially for low PRRS incidence regions. It was concluded that PRRS critically constrains the profitability of smallholder pig farms and that these findings will assist development of village-level livestock disease risk management programmes that encourage adoption of vaccination and biosecurity practices to enhance farmer livelihoods in Cambodia.

Smallholder Pig Farming for Rural Livelihoods and Food Security in North East India

Smallholder pig farming is an important livelihood resource for the poor and tribal people in India. However, the smallholder pig farms are faced with a number of problems. The present study thus aimed to build up the capacity of the smallholder pig farmers by some interventions on knowledge build up, pig variety replacement, shelter management and veterinary services in Tripura, a State of North East India. Two-stage stratified random sample survey on 178 smallholder tribal farmers using pre designed, semi-structured questionnaires was conducted to collect information before and after the interventions. The majority of the beneficiaries (83.71%) belonged to either low or medium income groups, of which 14.04% of the beneficiaries were the poorest group in the present study. After the shelter management and adoption of improved husbandry practices, a good and very good conditions in and around the pig shelters were recorded among 71.34% and 24.16% of the beneficiaries, respectively. Non-descriptive, local pigs (50%) were replaced by high yielding indigenous or exotic or crossbred pigs in the study area. Previously, 86.51% of the farmers reared pigs for fattening purpose, while 92.13% of the farmers practiced breeding of sows for piglet production after the intervention. The present interventions have brought significant impact (p<0.05) on rearing factors as well as socio-psychological factors. The implementation of ‘piglet production farming system’ augmented food security by 148 days.