Small Pixel Research Articles

PP-JPEG: A Privacy-Preserving JPEG Image-Tampering Localization.

The widespread availability of digital image-processing software has given rise to various forms of image manipulation and forgery, which can pose a significant challenge in different fields, such as law enforcement, journalism, etc. It can also lead to privacy concerns. We are proposing that a privacy-preserving framework to encrypt images before processing them is vital to maintain the privacy and confidentiality of sensitive images, especially those used for the purpose of investigation. To address these challenges, we propose a novel solution that detects image forgeries while preserving the privacy of the images. Our method proposes a privacy-preserving framework that encrypts the images before processing them, making it difficult for unauthorized individuals to access them. The proposed method utilizes a compression quality analysis in the encrypted domain to detect the presence of forgeries in images by determining if the forged portion (dummy image) has a compression quality different from that of the original image (featured image) in the encrypted domain. This approach effectively localizes the tampered portions of the image, even for small pixel blocks of size 10×10 in the encrypted domain. Furthermore, the method identifies the featured image's JPEG quality using the first minima in the energy graph.

Electrically Tunable Reflective Metasurfaces with Continuous and Full-Phase Modulation for High-Efficiency Wavefront Control at Visible Frequencies.

All-dielectric optical metasurfaces can locally control the amplitude and phase of light at the nanoscale, enabling arbitrary wavefront shaping. However, lack of postfabrication tunability has limited the true potential of metasurfaces for many applications. Here, we utilize a thin liquid crystal (LC) layer as a tunable medium surrounding the metasurface to achieve a phase-only spatial light modulator (SLM) with high reflection in the visible frequency, exhibiting active and continuous resonance tuning with associated 2π phase control and uncoupled amplitude. Dynamic wavefront shaping is demonstrated by programming 96 individually addressable electrodes with a small pixel pitch of ∼1 μm. The small pixel size is facilitated by the reduced LC thickness, strongly suppressing cross-talk among pixels. This device is used to demonstrate dynamic beam steering with a wide field-of-view and high absolute diffraction efficiencies. We believe that our demonstration may help realize next-generation, high-resolution SLMs, with wide applications in dynamic holography, tunable optics, and light detection and ranging (LiDAR), to mention a few.

Measures and models of visual acuity in epipelagic and mesopelagic teleosts and elasmobranchs

Eyes in low-light environments typically must balance sensitivity and spatial resolution. Vertebrate eyes with large "pixels" (e.g., retinal ganglion cells with inputs from many photoreceptors) will be sensitive but provide coarse vision. Small pixels can render finer detail, but each pixel will gather less light, and thus have poor signal relative-to-noise, leading to lower contrast sensitivity. This balance is particularly critical in oceanic species at mesopelagic depths (200–1000 m) because they experience low light and live in a medium that significantly attenuates contrast. Depending on the spatial frequency and inherent contrast of a pattern being viewed, the viewer’s pupil size and temporal resolution, and the ambient light level and water clarity, a visual acuity exists that maximizes the distance at which the pattern can be discerned. We develop a model that predicts this acuity for common conditions in the open ocean, and compare it to visual acuity in marine teleost fishes and elasmobranchs found at various depths in productive and oligotrophic waters. Visual acuity in epipelagic and upper mesopelagic species aligned well with model predictions, but species at lower mesopelagic depths (> 600 m) had far higher measured acuities than predicted. This is consistent with the prediction that animals found at lower mesopelagic depths operate in a visual world consisting primarily of bioluminescent point sources, where high visual acuity helps localize targets of this kind. Overall, the results suggest that visual acuity in oceanic fish and elasmobranchs is under depth-dependent selection for detecting either extended patterns or point sources.

On timing-optimized SiPMs for Cherenkov detection to boost low cost time-of-flight PET

Objective. Recent SiPM developments and improved front-end electronics have opened new doors in TOF-PET with a focus on prompt photon detection. For instance, the relatively high Cherenkov yield of bismuth-germanate (BGO) upon 511 keV gamma interaction has triggered a lot of interest, especially for its use in total body positron emission tomography (PET) scanners due to the crystal’s relatively low material and production costs. However, the electronic readout and timing optimization of the SiPMs still poses many questions. Lab experiments have shown the prospect of Cherenkov detection, with coincidence time resolutions (CTRs) of 200 ps FWHM achieved with small pixels, but lack system integration due to an unacceptable high power uptake of the used amplifiers. Approach. Following recent studies the most practical circuits with lower power uptake (<30 mW) have been implemented and the CTR performance with BGO of newly developed SiPMs from Fondazione Bruno Kessler tested. These novel SiPMs are optimized for highest single photon time resolution (SPTR). Main results. We achieved a best CTR FWHM of 123 ps for 2 × 2 × 3 mm3 and 243 ps for 3 × 3 × 20 mm3 BGO crystals. We further show that with these devices a CTR of 106 ps is possible using commercially available 3 × 3 × 20 mm3 LYSO:Ce,Mg crystals. To give an insight in the timing properties of these SiPMs, we measured the SPTR with black coated PbF2 of 2 × 2 × 3 mm3 size. We confirmed an SPTR of 68 ps FWHM published in literature for standard devices and show that the optimized SiPMs can improve this value to 42 ps. Pushing the SiPM bias and using 1 × 1 mm2 area devices we measured an SPTR of 28 ps FWHM. Significance. We have shown that advancements in readout electronics and SiPMs can lead to improved CTR with Cherenkov emitting crystals. Enabling time-of-flight with BGO will trigger a high interest for its use in low-cost and total-body PET scanners. Furthermore, owing to the prompt nature of Cherenkov emission, future CTR improvements are conceivable, for which a low-power electronic implementation is indispensable. In an extended discussion we will give a roadmap to best timing with prompt photons.

Investigating the Small Pixel Effect in Ultra-High Resolution Photon-Counting CT of the Lung.

The aim of this study was to investigate potential benefits of ultra-high resolution (UHR) over standard resolution scan mode in ultra-low dose photon-counting detector CT (PCD-CT) of the lung. Six cadaveric specimens were examined with 5 dose settings using tin prefiltration, each in UHR (120 × 0.2 mm) and standard mode (144 × 0.4 mm), on a first-generation PCD-CT scanner. Image quality was evaluated quantitatively by noise comparisons in the trachea and both main bronchi. In addition, 16 readers (14 radiologists and 2 internal medicine physicians) independently completed a browser-based pairwise forced-choice comparison task for assessment of subjective image quality. The Kendall rank coefficient ( W ) was calculated to assess interrater agreement, and Pearson's correlation coefficient ( r ) was used to analyze the relationship between noise measurements and image quality rankings. Across all dose levels, image noise in UHR mode was lower than in standard mode for scan protocols matched by CTDI vol ( P < 0.001). UHR examinations exhibited noise levels comparable to the next higher dose setting in standard mode ( P ≥ 0.275). Subjective ranking of protocols based on 5760 pairwise tests showed high interrater agreement ( W = 0.99; P ≤ 0.001) with UHR images being preferred by readers in the majority of comparisons. Irrespective of scan mode, a substantial indirect correlation was observed between image noise and subjective image quality ranking ( r = -0.97; P ≤ 0.001). In PCD-CT of the lung, UHR scan mode reduces image noise considerably over standard resolution acquisition. Originating from the smaller detector element size in fan direction, the small pixel effect allows for superior image quality in ultra-low dose examinations with considerable potential for radiation dose reduction.

Dual Homogeneous Patches-Based Band Selection Methodology for Hyperspectral Classification

Homogeneous band- or pixel-based feature selection, which exploits the difference between spectral or spatial regions to select informative and low-redundant bands, has been extensively studied in classifying hyperspectral images (HSIs). Although many models have proven effective, they rarely simultaneously exploit homogeneous spatial and spectral information, which are beneficial to extract potential low-dimensional characteristics even under noise. Moreover, the employed vectorial transformation and unordered assumption destroy the implicit knowledge of HSIs. To solve these issues, a dual homogeneous pixel patches-based methodology termed PHSIMR was created for selecting the most representative, low-redundant, and informative bands, integrating hybrid superpixelwise adjacent band grouping and regional informative mutuality ranking algorithms. Specifically, the adjoining band grouping technique is designed to group adjacent bands into connected clusters with a small homogeneous pixel patch containing several homolabeled adjacent spatial points. Hence, the processing is efficient, and the superpixelwise adjoining band grouping can perceptually and quickly acquire connected band groups. Furthermore, the constructed graph and affiliated group avoid vectorial transformation and unordered assumption, protecting spectral and spatial contextual information. Then, the regional informative mutuality ranking algorithm is employed on another larger pixel patch within each homogeneous band group, acquiring the final representative, low-redundant, and informative band subset. Since the employed dual patches consist of homolabeled spatial pixels, PHSIMR is a supervised methodology. Comparative experiments on three benchmark HSIs were performed to demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness of the proposed PHSIMR.

Context-guided coarse-to-fine detection model for bird nest detection on high-speed railway catenary

As a critical component of ensuring the safe and stable operation of trains, the detection of bird’s nests on the rail catenary has always been essential. Low-resolution images and the lack of labelled data, however, make it difficult to detect smaller bird’s nests (those occupying small pixels in the input image). Previous solution relies on manual online patrol or offline video playback, which severely limits the detection efficiency. Previously, this challenge was addressed by manual online patrol or offline video playback, which severely limits detection efficiency. We propose in this work a context-guided coarse-to-fine detection model (CG-CFDM) for solving the bird’s nest detection problem. This solution consists of a context reasoning module and a coarse-to-fine detection network. By detecting domains and matching templates, the context reasoning module generates new labelled context bounding boxes, thereby reducing the burden of annotation. As a result of its delicately designed architecture and powerful representation learning ability, this trained coarse-to-fine detection network further facilitates the detection of bird’s nests in an efficient and accurate manner. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the proposed approach is superior to existing methods in terms of performance and has a great deal of potential for detecting bird’s nests.

Real-Time Wavefront Sensing at High Resolution with an Electrically Tunable Lens.

We have designed, assembled, and evaluated a compact instrument capable of capturing the wavefront phase in real time, across various scenarios. Our approach simplifies the optical setup and configuration, which reduces the conventional capture and computation time when compared to other methods that use two defocused images. We evaluated the feasibility of using an electrically tunable lens in our camera by addressing its issues and optimizing its performance. Additionally, we conducted a comparison study between our approach and a Shack-Hartmann sensor. The camera was tested on multiple targets, such as deformable mirrors, lenses with aberrations, and a liquid lens in movement. Working at the highest resolution of the CMOS sensor with a small effective pixel size enables us to achieve the maximum level of detail in lateral resolution, leading to increased sensitivity to high-spatial-frequency signals.

Second-Order Fused Lasso Algorithm for Radio Tomographic Imaging

Radio tomographic imaging (RTI) is one of the device-free localization (DFL) approaches used to identify obstacles in a wireless network by using the attenuation information of radio waves. The RTI system’s fusion centre collects the received signal strength (RSS) data from all nodes and uses batch estimation to find the spatial loss field (SLF) due to obstacles. The surrounding small noisy pixels in the SLF vector are eliminated by the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (lasso), which results in improved sparsity in SLF. First-order fused lasso (FL)-based RTI techniques are used for simultaneous improvements in sparsity and structural details of the SLF. However, first-order methods have slower convergence than the second-order methods. Also, this batch FL-based SLF estimation results in high memory requirements. In this letter, a novel second-order fast FL algorithm is proposed to handle such bottlenecks. This algorithm uses a time- and norm-weighted fused lasso (TNWFL) strategy for updating the weights of <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">l</i> <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">1</sub> -norm through the use of second-order parameters. The effectiveness of the TNWFL estimator is verified through the simulations.

Hi'CT: a pixel sensor-based device for ion tomography

Carbon ions, commonly referred to as particle therapy, have become increasingly popular in the last decade. Accurately predicting the range of ions in tissues is important for the precise delivery of doses in heavy-ion radiotherapy. Range uncertainty is currently the largest contributor to dose uncertainty in normal tissues, leading to the use of safety margins in treatment planning. One potential method is the direct relative stopping measurement (RSP) with ions. Heavy-ion CT (Hi′CT), a compact segmented full digital tomography detector using monolithic active pixel sensors, was designed and evaluated using a 430 MeV/u high-energy carbon ion pencil beam in Geant4. The precise position of the individual carbon ion track can be recorded and reconstructed using a 30 μm × 30 μm small pixel pitch size. Two types of customized image reconstruction algorithms were developed, and their performances were evaluated using three different modules of CATPHAN 600-series phantoms. The RSP measurement accuracy of the tracking algorithm for different types of materials in the CTP404 module was less than 1%. In terms of spatial resolution, the tracking algorithm could achieve a 20% modulation transfer function normalization value of CTP528 imaging results at 5 lp/cm, which is significantly better than that of the fast imaging algorithm (3 lp/cm). The density resolution obtained using the tracking algorithm of the customized CTP515 was approximately 10.5%. In conclusion, a compact digital Hi'CT system was designed, and its nominal performance was evaluated in a simulation. The RSP resolution and image quality provide potential feasibility for scanning most parts of an adult body or pediatric patient, particularly for head and neck tumor treatment.

Metasurface-enabled polarization-independent LCoS spatial light modulator for 4K resolution and beyond

With the distinct advantages of high resolution, small pixel size, and multi-level pure phase modulation, liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) devices afford precise and reconfigurable spatial light modulation that enables versatile applications ranging from micro-displays to optical communications. However, LCoS devices suffer from a long-standing problem of polarization-dependent response in that they only perform phase modulation on one linear polarization of light, and polarization-independent phase modulation—essential for most applications—have had to use complicated polarization-diversity optics. We propose and demonstrate, for the first time, an LCoS device that directly achieves high-performance polarization-independent phase modulation at telecommunication wavelengths with 4K resolution and beyond by embedding a polarization-rotating metasurface between the LCoS backplane and the liquid crystal phase-modulating layer. We verify the device with a number of typical polarization-independent application functions including beam steering, holographical display, and in a key optical switching element - wavelength selective switch (WSS), demonstrating the significant benefits in terms of both configuration simplification and performance improvement.

Performance analysis of pixelated antennas employing shifted cross‐shaped elements

AbstractThis article presents a detailed analysis of pixelated antennas employing shifted cross‐shaped elements optimised by evolutionary algorithms. Although, the size and number of the involved pixels, as well as the overall antenna size strongly influence performance of such antennas, detailed investigations on the interplay of geometrical considerations and their influence on parameters such as gain are missing from literature. Thus, the influence of various geometrical parameters on the performance of pixelated antennas for the first time, resulting in valuable design considerations is presented in this study. A maximum cross size could be found, for which an optimisation is viable. Based on this, a dataset consisting of 400 pixelated antennas was created, for different pixel‐ and antenna sizes and investigated certain parameters such as bandwidth and antenna gain. Most notably, a directly proportional dependence from the pixel‐on the antenna size for the optimisation of electrically large antennas was found. For small antennas, this dependency begins to deviate, leading to the fact that smaller pixels are needed to successfully optimise an antenna. Furthermore, the authors find that multi‐objective optimisation is a necessity to optimise matched antennas with a defined bandwidth and gain. The antenna gain shows a dependency on the cross size for electrically small antennas. From these results, design considerations for pixelated antennas can be derived. In addition to the extensive simulations, the dataset was verified in laboratory measurements.

55‐2: Invited Paper: Quantum Dot Color Conversion for Displays

Quantum dot (QD) color conversion has recently been demonstrated in commercial QD‐OLED displays on the market exhibiting exceptional color gamut coverage, brightness, black levels, and viewing angles. To continue developing QDs for a wide range of future display technologies, two key aspects remain under study. First, how can blue light absorption be maximized for small pixel formats (&lt;10 μm) requiring thin QD color conversion layers and second, as pixel sizes shrink and display brightness increases, how can these materials remain stable under high blue‐light excitation flux (up to 5W/cm 2)? Here we describe experiments addressing these two areas of continued development for heavy‐metal free QDs.

77‐1: Invited Paper: The Colloidal Quantum Dot Based Color Conversion Layer for Micro LED Arrays

The advances of micro LEDs and colloidal quantum dots have provided a great platform for the next generation of micro displays. Although the illuminating efficiency of colloidal quantum dots is close to 100%, the patterning of these nanocrystals is still important and need to be developed. We use semiconductor grade fabrication to obtain small pixels smaller than 10 micrometers and a large scale formation of array. The photonic characterization reveals the conversion efficiency is 20% and the excitation wavelength dependent behavior is also probed. A 1300‐hour of vacuum storage test showed this type of color conversion layer is stable and the emission wavelength and linewidth are almost unchanged.

53‐2: Mini LED Emissive Display Product with Pitch 0.5mm Based on MIP Chips

In this work, we design a new type of LED chips named MIP (Micro LED in package) chips which are composed of three or more sub‐pixel LED chips. Compared with traditional Micro LED chips, MIP can achieve EL measurement and high transfer yield. The structure and optical performance of MIP chips are demonstrated in this work. Moreover, based on MIP chips, we successfully made a Mini LED emissive display product with the pitch 0.5 mm. Such MIP chips provide a new choice for Mini LED display with small pixel pitch.

Investigation of the Global Shutter Operation of the Quantum-Dot Short-Wave Infrared Image Sensor

Quantum dot (QD) thin-film photodiodes (TFPDs) are studied extensively in the image sensor field as they can pave the way toward the cost-efficient implementation of short-wave infrared (SWIR) cameras. Interestingly, the QD TFPD image sensors can be operated in the global shutter (GS) mode by turning on the photodiode (PD) only during integration time and subsequently turning it off during the readout. This offers the substantial advantage of reducing the pixel size as it eliminates the need for additional transistors or capacitors that are otherwise typically used in conventional GS pixels. So far, no comprehensive study has yet been performed on this PD turn on/off operation mode. Therefore, in this work, we investigated the PD turn on/off GS operation mode in comparison with the conventional voltage domain (VD) GS operation—a first in-depth report of its kind. We confirm that the PD turn on/off GS mode has the advantage of a small pixel size but comes at the cost of an increasing nonlinearity as the integration time approaches the PD speed limitation. We report a parasitic light sensitivity (PLS) of <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$-$</tex-math> </inline-formula> 70 dB over the visible (VIS) and SWIR range and moreover demonstrate that the PLS has the potential to reach <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$&lt;$</tex-math> </inline-formula> <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$-$</tex-math> </inline-formula> 100 dB based on the discrete PD measurement.

TCAD Analysis of Leakage Current and Breakdown Voltage in Small Pitch 3D Pixel Sensors.

Small-pitch 3D pixel sensors have been developed to equip the innermost layers of the ATLAS and CMS tracker upgrades at the High Luminosity LHC. They feature 50 × 50 and 25 × 100 μm2 geometries and are fabricated on p-type Si-Si Direct Wafer Bonded substrates of 150 μm active thickness with a single-sided process. Due to the short inter-electrode distance, charge trapping effects are strongly mitigated, making these sensors extremely radiation hard. Results from beam test measurements of 3D pixel modules irradiated at large fluences (1016neq/cm2) indeed demonstrated high efficiency at maximum bias voltages of the order of 150 V. However, the downscaled sensor structure also lends itself to high electric fields as the bias voltage is increased, meaning that premature electrical breakdown due to impact ionization is a concern. In this study, TCAD simulations incorporating advanced surface and bulk damage models are used to investigate the leakage current and breakdown behavior of these sensors. Simulations are compared with measured characteristics of 3D diodes irradiated with neutrons at fluences up to 1.5 × 1016neq/cm2. The dependence of the breakdown voltage on geometrical parameters (e.g., the n+ column radius and the gap between the n+ column tip and the highly doped p++ handle wafer) is also discussed for optimization purposes.

Monolithic scintillator PET detector by using light sharing between adjacent detector modules

A monolithic crystal-based positron emission tomography (PET) detector has a low cost and high sensitivity and allows determining 3D positions by scintillation light distribution. However, the edge effect inherent to scintillators deteriorates the position resolution of the detector toward the crystal borders due to the escape and reflection of the scintillation light. An increase in crystal thickness will improve the detection efficiency, but the edge effect becomes severe. To improve the position resolution and detection efficiency of scintillators, the light-sharing technique is developed. Two identical trapezoidal monolithic cerium-doped lutetium yttrium orthosilicate (LYSO) crystals with a bottom size of 25.80 × 25.80 mm2 and a thickness of 20 mm are optically coupled at one lateral face by an optical medium. The scintillation light near the optically coupled interface is jointly collected by two adjacent 8 × 8 SiPM arrays from the bottom faces. The SiPM signals are individually read out and processed by using the multichannel readout application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) of TOFPET2 to provide a light distribution. The transverse positions and depth of interaction (DOI) are calculated from the measured light distribution. As expected, the optical glue with a refractive index of n = 1.68 shows better light sharing between two LYSO crystals than the coupling media of silicon grease (n = 1.40) and air. For the 20 mm thick monolithic LYSO-based PET detector, the transverse position resolution near the crystal edge is improved by nearly 30% by using the light-sharing method compared with the black-painted treatment. However, the DOI resolution near the edge of the crystal is not significantly improved, which may be attributed to the incomplete collection of scintillation light. The DOI resolution of the detector would be improved by using electronics with lower noise and SiPM arrays with smaller pixel.

Megapixel large-format colloidal quantum-dot infrared imagers with resonant-cavity enhanced photoresponse

Infrared imaging is extensively explored due to its unique properties of high atmospheric transmission and temperature-dependent emission. Unfortunately, the current epitaxial infrared materials suffer from a complicated fabrication process and low production yield, which hinders the further development of infrared imaging for civilian applications. As an alternative to epitaxial semiconductors, the wide spectral tunability and optical versatility of colloidal quantum dots (CQDs) have provided a promising route for infrared detection. Here, we demonstrate an infrared imager that integrates HgTe CQDs with complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) readout integrated circuits. Moreover, the underlying metal contacts and passivation layer of the CMOS chip play a role as an in-pixel resonant-cavity , which enhances the absorption of the CQDs film. The CQDs imager exhibits a detectivity of 2.8 × 1010 Jones, an external quantum efficiency of 14%, and an operable pixel factor of over 99.99% for a cut-off wavelength of around 2 µm at room-temperature. With a large-format (1280 × 1024 pixels2) and a small pixel pitch of 15 µm, the resolution of the imager can reach 40 line pairs per millimeter (lp/mm). The performance of the CQDs imager is demonstrated by infrared imaging.

Development and Core Technologies for Intelligent SWaP3 Infrared Cameras: A Comprehensive Review and Analysis.

With the development of infrared detection and imaging technology, infrared cameras (IRCs) play an important role in many fields, such as military, industry, and civilian. Additionally, the requirements for the size, performance, and intelligence of IRCs are becoming more and more strict. Consequently, the associated research and development (R&D) of IRCs is gradually focused on the aspects of miniaturization, high performance, intelligence, low power consumption, and low cost, involving many frontier fields, including artificial intelligence, new materials, new optical systems, and electronics systems. In fact, there are continual studies on intelligent SWaP3 IRCs, but unfortunately, a systematic arrangement and analysis are lacking. Therefore, a systematical and comprehensive review for the developments and core technologies of the intelligent SWaP3 IRCs is really needed. In this paper, in terms of the aforementioned requirements, we conduct a review and analysis of current intelligent SWaP3 IRCs based on 90 literature and statistics in recent decades to provide the relevant developers with a helpful reference for facilitating the indicator optimization of intelligent SWaP3 IRCs with new developed technologies. We analyze the development of SWaP3 IRCs in the aspects of lightweight, miniaturization, low price, and high performance, including hyperspectral resolution, high spatial resolution, large field of view (FOV), and wide dynamic elaborately. Moreover, the development in low power consumption and intelligence is also discussed in detail. Additionally, we briefly summarize the primary applications of intelligent SWaP3 IRCs in military, scientific, and civil. Then, the core technologies comprising high-integration, lightweight, hyperspectral imaging (HSI), low-power consumption, as well as the realization of high performance such as high-resolution, high-frame, and wide-dynamic range of SWaP3 IRCs are discussed and analyzed in detail. Finally, we prospect for the intelligent SWaP3 IRCs that it is necessary to continuously expand the concept of SWaP3 by reliability, stability, extensibility, and safety. In addition, it is useful to embed cutting-edge technologies such as small pixel pitch array, multi-sensors fusion, and deploy intelligent algorithms to IRCs. Additionally, the improvement of the whole machine from multi-dimension such as chip, camera, and system is expected and needs to be taken more seriously. It is hoped that this paper can provide a reference for the R&D of intelligent SWaP3 IRCs in the future.