Small-scale Quantum Computers Research Articles

Multi-objective simulated annealing-based quantum circuit cutting for distributed quantum computation

In the current noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era, the number of qubits and the depth of quantum circuits in a quantum computer are limited because of complex operation among increasing number of qubits, low-fidelity quantum gates under noise, and short coherence time of physical qubits. However, with distributed quantum computation (DQC) in which multiple small-scale quantum computers cooperate, large-scale quantum circuits can be implemented. In DQC, it is a key step to decompose large-scale quantum circuits into several small-scale subcircuits equivalently. In this paper, we propose a quantum circuit cutting scheme for the circuits consisting of only single-qubit gates and two-qubit gates. In the scheme, the number of non-local gates and the rounds of subcircuits operation are minimized by using the multi-objective simulated annealing (MOSA) algorithm to cluster the gates and to choose the cutting positions whilst using non-local gates. A reconstruction process is also proposed to calculate the probability distribution of output states of the original circuit. As an example, the 7-qubit circuit of Shor algorithm factoring 15 is used to verify the algorithm. Five cutting schemes are recommended, which can be selected according to practical requirements. Compared with the results of the mixing integer programming (MIP) algorithm, the number of execution rounds is efficiently reduced by slightly increasing the number of nonlocal gates.

Individually Addressed Quantum Gate Interactions Using Dynamical Decoupling

A leading approach to implementing small-scale quantum computers has been to use laser beams, focused to micron spot sizes, to address and entangle trapped ions in a linear crystal. Here we propose a method to implement individually addressed entangling gate interactions, but driven by microwave fields, with a spatial resolution of a few microns, corresponding to 10−5 microwave wavelengths. We experimentally demonstrate the ability to suppress the effect of the state-dependent force using a single ion, and find the required interaction introduces 3.7(4)×10−4 error per emulated gate in a single-qubit benchmarking sequence. We model the scheme for a 17-qubit ion crystal, and find that any pair of ions should be addressable with an average crosstalk error of approximately 10−5. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Leveraging Small-Scale Quantum Computers with Unitarily Downfolded Hamiltonians

A quantum unitary downfolding formalism that works on noisy and fault-tolerant hardware is proposed and tested on several challenging chemical problems, offering a viable approach for estimating molecular properties with chemical accuracy.

Supervised learning of random quantum circuits via scalable neural networks

Predicting the output of quantum circuits is a hard computational task that plays a pivotal role in the development of universal quantum computers. Here we investigate the supervised learning of output expectation values of random quantum circuits. Deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are trained to predict single-qubit and two-qubit expectation values using databases of classically simulated circuits. These circuits are built using either a universal gate set or a continuous set of rotations plus an entangling gate, and they are represented via properly designed encodings of these gates. The prediction accuracy for previously unseen circuits is analyzed, also making comparisons with small-scale quantum computers available from the free IBM Quantum program. The CNNs often outperform these quantum devices, depending on the circuit depth, on the network depth, and on the training set size. Notably, our CNNs are designed to be scalable. This allows us exploiting transfer learning and performing extrapolations to circuits larger than those included in the training set. These CNNs also demonstrate remarkable resilience against noise, namely, they remain accurate even when trained on (simulated) expectation values averaged over very few measurements.

Quantum Computing With Trapped Ions: An overview

An array of trapped atomic ions that are laser cooled and isolated in an ultrahigh-vacuum environment presents one of the most advanced physical platforms for realizing a practical quantum computer. Small-scale ion quantum computers up to tens of ions have been built and achieved the highest fidelities on elementary quantum operations and overall quantum volume (QV). This article provides an overview of the elements of trapped-ion quantum computing (TIQC), current achievements in the field, and future perspectives.

Deep Variational Quantum Eigensolver: A Divide-And-Conquer Method for Solving a Larger Problem with Smaller Size Quantum Computers

We propose a divide-and-conquer method for the quantum-classical hybrid algorithm to solve larger problems with small-scale quantum computers. Specifically, we concatenate variational quantum eigensolver (VQE) with reducing the dimensions of the system, where the interactions between divided subsystems are taken as an effective Hamiltonian expanded by the reduced basis. Then the effective Hamiltonian is further solved by VQE, which we call {\it deep VQE}. Deep VQE allows us to apply quantum-classical hybrid algorithms on small-scale quantum computers to large systems with strong intra-subsystem interactions and weak inter-subsystem interactions, or strongly correlated spin models on large regular lattices. As proof-of-principle numerical demonstrations, we use the proposed method for Heisenberg anti-ferromagnetic models, including one-dimensionally coupled 12-qubit Heisenberg anti-ferromagnetic models on Kagome lattices. The largest problem size of 48 qubits is solved by simulating 12-qubit quantum computers. The proposed scheme enables us to handle the problems of $>1000$ qubits by concatenating VQE with a few tens of qubits. Deep VQE will provide us a promising pathway to solve practically important problems on noisy intermediate-scale quantum computers.

Branching quantum convolutional neural networks

Neural-network-based algorithms have garnered considerable attention for their ability to learn complex patterns from very-high-dimensional data sets towards classifying complex long-range patterns of entanglement and correlations in many-body quantum systems, and towards processing high-dimensional classical data sets. Small-scale quantum computers are already showing potential gains in learning tasks on large quantum and very large classical data sets. A particularly interesting class of algorithms, the quantum convolutional neural networks (QCNNs) could learn features of a quantum data set by performing a binary classification task on a nontrivial phase of quantum matter. Inspired by this promise, we present a generalization of QCNN, the ``branching quantum convolutional neural network,'' or bQCNN, with substantially higher expressibility. A key feature of bQCNN is that it leverages midcircuit (intermediate) measurement results, realizable on several current quantum devices, obtained in pooling layers to determine which sets of parameters will be used in the subsequent convolutional layers of the circuit. This results in a ``branching'' structure, which allows for a greater number of trainable variational parameters in a given circuit depth. This is of particular use in current-day noisy intermediate-scale quantum devices, where circuit depth is limited by gate noise. We present an overview of the Ansatz structure and scaling and provide evidence of its enhanced expressibility compared with QCNN. Using artificially constructed large data sets of training states as a proof of concept, we demonstrate the existence of training tasks in which bQCNN far outperforms an ordinary QCNN. We provide an explicit example of such a task in the recognition of the transition from a symmetry protected topological to a trivial phase induced by multiple, distinct perturbations. Finally, we present future directions where the classical branching structure and increased density of trainable parameters in bQCNN would be particularly valuable.

IBM Small-Scale Superconducting Quantum Computer Not Gate Error Test

Quantum NOT gates play an important role in the process of quantum information conversion. However, when the X-gate operation is executed on a real quantum computer, there is a large deviation between the actual operation result and the theory, which will lead to inaccurate results when the quantum algorithm containing the X-gate operation is executed. In order to facilitate users to understand the error fluctuations of the X gate in time before executing the quantum algorithm containing the X gate operation on the IBM quantum cloud platform, this paper proposes a method to measure the X gate error. By measuring the X-gate error of four small-scale superconducting quantum computers on the back end of the IBM quantum cloud platform, analyze the degree of fluctuation of the actual measurement value of the quantum device; at the same time, under different execution times shots, the influence of the X-gate test is analyzed. The test results show that the measured value of each qubit of different quantum devices fluctuates to different degrees; the execution times of shots are different, and the test results of X-gate error will be affected to different degrees. This test method helps users select the optimal performance of the qubits before executing quantum algorithms with X gate on IBM's small-scale quantum computers.

Quantum computing methods for supervised learning

The last two decades have seen an explosive growth in the theory and practice of both quantum computing and machine learning. Modern machine learning systems process huge volumes of data and demand massive computational power. As silicon semiconductor miniaturization approaches its physics limits, quantum computing is increasingly being considered to cater to these computational needs in the future. Small-scale quantum computers and quantum annealers have been built and are already being sold commercially. Quantum computers can benefit machine learning research and application across all science and engineering domains. However, owing to its roots in quantum mechanics, research in this field has so far been confined within the purview of the physics community, and most work is not easily accessible to researchers from other disciplines. In this paper, we provide a background and summarize key results of quantum computing before exploring its application to supervised machine learning problems. By eschewing results from physics that have little bearing on quantum computation, we hope to make this introduction accessible to data scientists, machine learning practitioners, and researchers from across disciplines.

Approximating local observables on projected entangled pair states

Tensor network states are for good reasons believed to capture ground states of gapped local Hamiltonians arising in the condensed matter context, states which are in turn expected to satisfy an entanglement area law. However, the computational hardness of contracting projected entangled pair states in two and higher dimensional systems is often seen as a significant obstacle when devising higher-dimensional variants of the density-matrix renormalisation group method. In this work, we show that for those projected entangled pair states that are expected to provide good approximations of such ground states of local Hamiltonians, one can compute local expectation values in quasi-polynomial time. We therefore provide a complexity-theoretic justification of why state-of-the-art numerical tools work so well in practice. We comment on how the transfer operators of such projected entangled pair states have a gap and discuss notions of local topological quantum order. We finally turn to the computation of local expectation values on quantum computers, providing a meaningful application for a small-scale quantum computer.

A NASA perspective on quantum computing: Opportunities and challenges

In the last couple of decades, the world has seen several stunning instances of quantum algorithms that provably outperform the best classical algorithms. For most problems, however, it is currently unknown whether quantum algorithms can provide an advantage, and if so by how much, or how to design quantum algorithms that realize such advantages. Many of the most challenging computational problems arising in the practical world are tackled today by heuristic algorithms that have not been mathematically proven to outperform other approaches but have been shown to be effective empirically. While quantum heuristic algorithms have been proposed, empirical testing becomes possible only as quantum computation hardware is built. The next few years will be exciting as empirical testing of quantum heuristic algorithms becomes more and more feasible. While large-scale universal quantum computers are likely decades away, special-purpose quantum computational hardware has begun to emerge that will become more powerful over time, as well as some small-scale universal quantum computers.

Iterative Phase Optimization of Elementary Quantum Error Correcting Codes

Performing experiments on small-scale quantum computers is certainly a challenging endeavor. Many parameters need to be optimized to achieve high-fidelity operations. This can be done efficiently for operations acting on single qubits as errors can be fully characterized. For multi-qubit operations, though, this is no longer the case as in the most general case analyzing the effect of the operation on the system requires a full state tomography for which resources scale exponentially with the system size. Furthermore, in recent experiments additional electronic levels beyond the two-level system encoding the qubit have been used to enhance the capabilities of quantum information processors, which additionally increases the number of parameters that need to be controlled. For the optimization of the experimental system for a given task (e.g.~a quantum algorithm), one has to find a satisfactory error model and also efficient observables to estimate the parameters of the model. In this manuscript we demonstrate a method to optimize the encoding procedure for a small quantum error correction code in the presence of unknown but constant phase shifts. The method, which we implement here on a small-scale linear ion-trap quantum computer, is readily applicable to other AMO platforms for quantum information processing.

Reducing quantum overhead

Quantum Computing A quantum computer is expected to outperform its classical counterpart in certain tasks. One such task is the factorization of large integers, the technology that underpins the security of bank cards and online privacy. Using a small-scale quantum computer comprising five trapped

Entanglement-based machine learning on a quantum computer.

Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, learns from previous experience to optimize performance, which is ubiquitous in various fields such as computer sciences, financial analysis, robotics, and bioinformatics. A challenge is that machine learning with the rapidly growing "big data" could become intractable for classical computers. Recently, quantum machine learning algorithms [Lloyd, Mohseni, and Rebentrost, arXiv.1307.0411] were proposed which could offer an exponential speedup over classical algorithms. Here, we report the first experimental entanglement-based classification of two-, four-, and eight-dimensional vectors to different clusters using a small-scale photonic quantum computer, which are then used to implement supervised and unsupervised machine learning. The results demonstrate the working principle of using quantum computers to manipulate and classify high-dimensional vectors, the core mathematical routine in machine learning. The method can, in principle, be scaled to larger numbers of qubits, and may provide a new route to accelerate machine learning.

Boson sampling on a chip

Small-scale quantum computers made from an array of interconnected waveguides on a glass chip can now perform a task that is considered hard to undertake on a large scale by classical means.

Quantum communication and computing with atomic ensembles using a light-shift-imbalance-induced blockade

Recently, we have shown that for conditions under which the so-called light-shift imbalance induced blockade (LSIIB) occurs, the collective excitation of an ensemble of a multi-level atom can be treated as a closed two level system. In this paper, we describe how such a system can be used as a quantum bit (qubit) for quantum communication and quantum computing. Specifically, we show how to realize a C-NOT gate using the collective qubit and an easily accessible ring cavity, via an extension of the so-called Pellizzari scheme. We also describe how multiple, small-scale quantum computers realized using these qubits can be linked effectively for implementing a quantum internet. We describe the details of the energy levels and transitions in 87Rb atom that could be used for implementing these schemes.

Use of small-scale quantum computers in cryptography with many-qubit entangled states

We propose a new cryptographic protocol. It is suggested to encode information in ordinary binary form into many-qubit entangled states with the help of a quantum computer. A state of qubits (realized, e.g., with photons) is transmitted through a quantum channel to the addressee, who applies a quantum computer tuned to realize the inverse unitary-transformation decoding of the message. Different ways of eavesdropping are considered, and an estimate of the time needed for determining the secret unitary transformation is given. It is shown that using even small quantum computers can serve as a basis for very efficient cryptographic protocols. For a suggested cryptographic protocol, the time scale on which communication can be considered secure is exponential in the number of qubits in the entangled states and in the number of gates used to construct the quantum network.