Small-scale Pig Farms Research Articles

Small-Scale Pig Farming as a Tool for Unemployment Alleviation in Buffalo City, Eastern Cape of South Africa

The study examines the effect of small-scale pig farming on unemployment alleviation in Buffalo City, Eastern Cape of South Africa. This is against the backdrop of the extreme youth unemployment and increasing poverty rate being witnessed in South Africa (SA) due to the unstable global economic environment that has impacted most economies of the world. On its part, the government made an appreciable number of investments, especially in the agricultural sector, to address the unemployment challenges, which has yielded varied levels of success. The unemployment situation in SA was compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic, which resulted in approximately 33% of the labour resources that were productive before the pandemic to idle. This necessitated a government injection of R100 billion as a stimulus package into the economy to support small businesses and the agricultural sector, especially small-scale farmers. Mixed methods were adopted to gather primary data from 164 pig farmers, which were randomly selected. XLSTAT and SPSS 28 were used to analyse the quantitative data, and NVivo was used for the qualitative data. The results revealed that farming activities provided a source of income for most pig farmers, with several households depending on it for their livelihood. The collective advantage among pig farmers was the availability of space for farming activities, and most of them engaged in pig farming as a necessity. The government plays a crucial role in the sustainability of pig farming activities in the area through the various interventions that create the needed enabling environment for the farmers to thrive.

Utilizing recycled pumice and oyster shell waste for cost-effective treatment to mitigate pollutants and toxicity in swine wastewater

Despite the abundant nutrients that could be reutilized in swine wastewater, inadequate wastewater management leads to excessive metals and organic matter, causing environmental impacts on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In this study, we recycled waste pumice and oyster shells for the cost-effective treatment and reclamation of swine wastewater. The toxicity of the treated wastewater was assessed using the soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and Chinese cabbage Brassica rapa chinensis. Our findings showed significant removal of suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total phosphorus, and heavy metals (As, Cu, Ni, and Zn) from the swine wastewater after treatment with pumice and oyster shells. Moreover, untreated wastewater significantly inhibited the germination of Chinese cabbage, a trend that was reversed in treated wastewater. Both treated and untreated swine wastewater stimulated the growth of Chinese cabbage. Additionally, untreated swine wastewater exhibited high toxicity to the growth and reproduction of C. elegans after 72 hours of exposure, whereas treated wastewater showed notably reduced toxicity. The recycled pumice and oyster shells significantly induced growth and showed no toxicity in Chinese cabbage. These results suggest that pumice and oyster shell waste can effectively reduce environmental toxicity in raw swine wastewater, offering a cost-effective wastewater treatment solution for small-scale pig farms.

Awareness and adoption of a nurse sow management system among small-scale pig farmers in Nakuru County, Kenya

This study aimed to assess the level of awareness and adoption of nurse sow management strategies among small-scale pig farmers in Nakuru County, Kenya. The research included a survey of pig farmers who visited the Nakuru Agricultural Show in July 2023. A total of 139 farmers were interviewed within 5 days of the show. The corresponding author interviewed the respondents in a face-to-face engagement, where questions on nurse sow management were initially drafted in English and translated into Kiswahili, i.e. the second language in Kenya. The obtained results indicated that farmers came from two main regions of the county: the northern part (54.7%, 76/139) and the southern part (45.3%, 63/139). Levels of awareness and adoption were insignificant between the two groups (χ2, p<0.05). A major obstacle to the adoption of this strategy was identified as feed challenge at 77.7%; (108/139) and market issue at 59.7%; (83/139). This study identified important aspects and limitations that should be considered when developing sustainable productivity development strategies for Kenyan pig farmers. To assist the sustainable growth of small-scale pig production, the authors suggest government measures that shield farmers against exploitation of feed and marketing components, as well as advocating for effective breeding to increase live born.

Learning Management of Small-Scale Pig Farmers to Adopt Biogas Coproduction: A Case Study of Ratchaburi Province

Learning Management of Small-Scale Pig Farmers to Adopt Biogas Coproduction: A Case Study of Ratchaburi Province

Mobile genetic elements mediate the cross-media transmission of antibiotic resistance genes from pig farms and their risks

Manure composting in traditional small-scale pig farms leads to the migration and diffusion of antibiotics and antibiotics resistance genes (ARGs) along the chain of transmission to the surrounding environment, increasing the risk of environmental resistance. Understanding the transmission patterns, driving factors, and health risks of ARGs on small-scale pig farms is important for effective control of ARGs transmission. This study was conducted on a small pig farm and its surrounding environment. The cross-media transmission of ARGs and their risks in the farming habitat were investigated using Metagenomic annotation and qPCR quantitative detection. The results indicate that ARGs in farms spread with manure pile-soil-channel sediment-mudflat sediment. Pig farm manure contributed 22.49 % of the mudflat sediment ARGs. Mobile genetic elements mediate the spread of ARGs across different media. Among them, tnpA and IS26 have the highest degree. Transmission of high-risk ARGs sul1 and tetM resulted in a 50 % and 116 % increase in host risk for sediment, respectively. This study provides a basis for farm manure management and control of the ARGs spread.

- Invited Review - Current status, challenges and prospects for pig production in Asia.

Asia is not only the primary region for global pig production but also the largest consumer of pork worldwide. Although the pig production in Asia has made great progress in the past, it still is confronted with numerous challenges. These challenges include: inadequate land and feed resources, a substantial number of small-scale pig farms, escalating pressure to ensure environmental conservation, control of devastating infectious diseases, as well as coping with high temperatures and high humidity. To solve these problems, important investments of human and financial capital are required to promote large-scale production systems, exploit alternative feed resources, implement precision feeding, and focus on preventive medicine and vaccines as alternatives to antibiotics, improve pig breeding, and increase manure recycling. Implementation of these techniques and management practices will facilitate development of more environmentally-friendly and economically sustainable pig production systems in Asia, ultimately providing consumers with healthy pork products around the world.

Profitability, market outlets and constraints to Ghana's pig production

Access to profitable marketing outlets by small-scale pig producers is a major concern in Ghana. This study uncovered the market outlets available to small-scale pig farmers and examined the profitability of these outlets, the factors influencing their choice of these outlets as well as constraints to the marketing of small-scale pig farming in Ghana. It used data collected from 398 small-scale pig farmers in selected districts of six regions in Ghana. Descriptive statistics, income statement and multivariate probit model were used in analyzing the data. The results indicate that small-scale pig farmers in Ghana utilize existing market outlets such as direct sales to consumers, retailers, commission agents and sales through farmer associations. The return on investment implies that small-scale pig production is a profitable venture with sales through farmer associations being the most profitable outlet. We therefore conclude that pig farming, although profitable across all outlets, is most profitable when channeled through farmer associations, with an impressive return on investment of 71.54%. The results of the multivariate probit analyses also revealed that the choice of marketing channel for pig farmers is influenced by price per kg of pigs sold, feed cost, gender, herd size, educational level, association membership, land ownership, credit accessibility, availability of storage facilities and access to market information. Finally, the analysis of marketing constraints revealed that price instability, market instability, and access to market information are the most pressing constraints to pig production in Ghana. The findings suggest that small-scale pig farmers can boost their incomes by developing direct sales through farmer associations to help increase their bargaining power and reap more benefits in the pig value chain. Also, the study recommends that addressing key constraints like price instability by providing access to real-time market information through digital platforms could modernize the small-scale pig farming sector in Ghana.

Unraveling swine hepatitis E in the central region of Argentina through ELISA development and epidemiological insights

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a public health concern globally, causing acute viral hepatitis in humans. Genotype-3 HEV (HEV-3), the most frequently genotype detected in South America, is zoonotic and the main reservoirs are the domestic pig and wild boar. Circulation of HEV-3 in Argentina has been confirmed in humans as well as in pig herds, wild boar and environmental waters. However, data are scarce mainly due to the inaccessibility of serological assays in this country. In order to provide insights in the epidemiology of HEV in swine in Argentina, we developed an indirect ELISA based on the native recombinant protein ORF2 and conducted a serological survey to determine the prevalence of seropositive swine in small-scale pig farms in the central region of Argentina. The method was evaluated in a panel of 157 serum samples, resulting in relative sensitivity of 98.6 % (95 % CI 95 %−100 %) and relative specificity of 97.7 % (95 % CI 94 %−100 %) compared to a commercial test. An almost perfect agreement was obtained between the two tests (Kappa index of 0.961). A survey on 294 samples from 49 small-scale farms resulted in a seropositivity rate of 54 %. Seropositive animals were found in 34 out of 49 (69.4 %) farms. Most of the farms (70.6 %) had over 50 % of seropositive animals. The wide spreading of HEV in the swine population of Tandil, Argentina, underscore the need to better understand the epidemiology of HEV in the region, enabling the implementation of targeted interventions to mitigate the impact of this virus on public health.

Technical Efficiency of Small-Scale Pig Farming in Indonesia

Live pigs are still the mainstay of livestock sub-sector exports inIndonesia. Although pig farming in Indonesia has competitivenessin the international market, its productivity shows a decliningcondition. The purpose of this research is to measure the level oftechnical efficiency of small-scale pig breeding and fatteningbusinesses. The data used come from the results of the FarmHousehold Survey conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics(BPS). The survey was conducted in 20 provinces in Indonesia,with a sample size of 6,681 small-scale or household-scale pigfarming. The research used the Stochastic Production Frontier(SPF) model to measure the level of technical efficiency of pigfarming and used the maximum likelihood method to estimate it. The results showed that the level of technical efficiency of pigfarming is relatively low. The average technical efficiency level offattening pig farming is higher than that of the breeding. Thefactors of farming experience, market orientation, and feed typecombination have a positive influence in improving efficiency. Public policies that improve pig farmers' access to farm inputs andmarkets are expected to significantly improve the productivity ofsmall-scale pig farming.

Assessing the livestock raising and waste treatment of small-scale pig farming households in Binh Dinh Province

Small-scale pig farming played a important role and brought effective economic benefits to households. However, it also caused risks to environmental quality, including air, soil and water, that farmers did not understand or paid enough attention. This study aimed to describe environmental parameters, livestock raising activities and waste treatment of small-scale pig farming households in Binh Dinh province. The samples for air, wastewater, groundwater and surface water analysis were surveyed at 05 sites of the project area in June and September of 2023 to evaluate the environmental quality status in study area. For the small-scale pig raising activities, data was investigated at 100 households in 04 Districts/Towns. The results indicated that the wastewater parameters collected at the pig farming households, with of TSS (300 – 1,500 mg/L), BOD5 (742 – 3,465 mg/L), COD (1.808 –10,320 mg/L), T_N (39 – 463 mg/L) and Coliform (3.6x105 – 9,2x105 MPN/100 mL). These findings exceeded from 1.5 – 160 times the allowable concentration for discharge into water sources that could not be used for domestic water supply purposes (QCVN 62:2016/BTNMT). These wastes have polluted surrounding surface water sources, furthermore, there was a risk of contaminating the air quality, soil environment, and groundwater layers. The survey results on pig raising activities showed that most households (69%) desired to keep the current scale, only 6% of farmers hoped to increase the scale. In addition, up to 25% of total farmers wanted to reduce the farming scale because they were afraid of risks in the pig raising process. Nowadays, small-scale pig farming households in Binh Dinh province have been aware of the pollution problem and taken preliminary measures for the waste treatment generated, of which building biogas digesters (without manure separation) accounted for the highest proportion (89% of the total number of households). However, the pollutant content of treated wastewater has been still high and exceeded the allowable discharge concentration. Most pig raising households would like to be guided to invest in building their own wastewater treatment systems, but investment costs were still a significant barrier for households in this production activity. Research results showed that the high application opportunities when popularizing the construction of wastewater treatment models for small-scale pig raising households in Binh Dinh province.

Lower pork consumption and technological change in feed production can reduce the pork supply chain environmental footprint in China.

Nearly half of global pork production and consumption occurs in China, but the transition towards intensification is associated with worsening environmental impacts. Here we explore scenarios for implementing structural and technological changes across the pork supply chain to improve environmental sustainability and meet future demand. Following the middle-of-the-road socio-economic pathway (SSP2), we estimate that the environmental footprint from the pork supply chain will increase by ~50% from 2017 to 2050. Utilizing technologies that improve feed crop production and manure management could reduce phosphorus and nitrogen losses by three-quarters and one-third, respectively, with modest reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and cropland area. Reducing pork consumption had substantial mitigation potential. Increased feed and pork imports would decrease domestic environmental footprints and meet demand, but increase footprints elsewhere. We conclude that farm-specific technologies and structural adjustments can support the development of rural, small-scale pig farms near cropland and promote circular economy principles.

Infrared Temperature Sensor for Use Among Sow Herds

Presently, the body temperature of farm animals must be monitored to prevent the occurrence or progression of any disease amongst the herds. We have employed infrared sensors (called “Inspect”) to detect the fever status of sows. Systemic architecture and data flow systems have also been designed for workers to use on small-scale pig farms. The body temperature of 100 gestating sows was determined with the use of a standard thermometer (inserted into the rectum), while our device was used on each part of the body of the sows. The valva or anus was found to be that location because of the high correlation that was observed between the two measurements (R=0.78). Moreover, regular, and systematic inspections were employed for a full year in 2019 on commercial pig farms that were home to at least 300 sows. The results indicated that the production indexes of the after period (2019) were better than those of the before period (2018), especially in terms of the health status of the animals with regard to mg/PCU. Consequently, it was determined that this system could detect abnormal signs in livestock before they could become a bigger problem.

Seasonal Pollution Characteristics of Antibiotics on Pig Farms of Different Scales

Scientific interest in pollution from veterinary antibiotics (VAs) on intensive animal farms has been increasing in recent years. However, limited information is available on the seasonal pollution characteristics and the associated ecological risks of VAs, especially about the different scale farms. Therefore, this study investigated the seasonal pollution status and ecological risks of 42 typical VAs (5 classes) on three different scale pig farms (breeding scales of about 30,000, 1200, and 300 heads, respectively) in Tianjin, China. The results showed that large-scale pig farms usually had the highest antibiotic pollution levels, followed by small-scale pig farms and medium-scale pig farms. Among different seasons, antibiotic contamination was more severe in winter and spring than that in the other seasons. Tetracyclines (TCs) usually had higher proportions (over 51.46%) and the residual concentration detected in manure, and wastewater samples ranged from not detected (ND)-1132.64 mg/kg and ND-1692.50 μg/L, respectively, which all occurred for oxytetracycline (OTC) during winter. For the antibiotic ecological risks in the effluent, we found high-risk level of 12 selected VAs accounted for 58% in spring, and 7 kinds of VAs were selected in the amended soil, but nearly all the antibiotics had no obvious ecological risks except OTC (spring and summer). All these data provided an insight into the seasonal variability and the associated ecological risks of antibiotics on intensive pig farms, which can provide scientific guidance on decreasing antibiotic contamination to enhance environmental security in similar areas.

Risk factors for the spread of African Swine Fever in China: A systematic review of Chinese-language literature.

African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) is a contagious pathogen that can cause severe acute haemorrhagic fever in pigs. The first occurrence of an ASF outbreak in Asia was reported in China in August 2018. The devastating impacts caused by ASF on the pig industry have strongly focused research on risk factors for the spread of ASFV. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify the potential knowledge gap in the English literature on risk factors for the spread of ASFV in outbreaks that occurred in China, 2018-2020. China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) was searched as the primary database. Sixty-four records were screened, and 31 (48%) records were included in data extraction. These records were also assessed for quality of evidence. Frequency tables for reported risks were created, considering quality of evidence. A narrative summary of mortality rate and case fatality rate reported in a small number of records was made. Mortality rate was reported in seven studies, ranging from 3.7% to 84.0% (median 11.9%). Case fatality rate was reported in six studies, ranging from 20.6% to 100% (median 63.3%). Based on 31 reviewed records, live pig transport, swill feeding and vehicles were the three most important risks for spread contributing to the ASF epidemic in China. Bites of infected Ornithodoros ticks was stated in 12 low level of evidence records but only 1 high level of evidence record as a risk factor for transmission. Direct contact with wild pigs was reported to be a risk factor in 8 records with low level of evidence, and 1 record from the high level of evidence group. However, limited evidence was provided to support the tick-domestic pig or wild pig-domestic pig transmission routes in China. Lack of resources to obtain veterinary assistance and to improve husbandry and biosecurity was mentioned four times in the 31 records, especially in remote rural areas. In conclusion, to effectively control the spread of ASF, it is very important to reduce mechanical dissemination of ASFV by vehicles and live pig transport involved in the production cycle and to ensure that transported pigs are always subject to inspection and quarantine. Additionally, despite strict implementation of prohibition on swill feeding often being impractical or nearly impossible, ensuring the safety of pig feed can greatly contribute to disease prevention. Improvement in biosecurity management, specifically environment disinfection, carcass disposal, and decontamination of vehicles and personnel will be most effective in reducing the risk of infection in small-scale pig farms.

Adoption of Scientific Pig Production Practices by Small Scale Pig Farmers in Assam: A Comparative Analysis

The research work was undertaken to compare the adoption of scientific pig production practices by small scale pig farmers in Assam in the adopted villages of ICAR-National Research Centre on Pig, Guwahati and the non-adopted villages. A composite adoption index was developed for measuring the adoption level of small-scale pig farmers. The primary data was collected from 360 small scale pig farmers equally from both the groups during 2020-2021. The data was analyzed using Mann-Whitney “U” test and observed a significant difference in adoption level between both the groups. In the adopted villages, 50.56 per cent of farmers were under high adoption category followed by 48.89 per cent in medium category whereas in non-adopted villages, about 88.33 per cent of the respondents were in the low adoption category and 10.56 per cent in medium adoption category. The independent factors like education, experience in pig farming, family size, herd size, annual income, extension contact and social participation were positively correlated with adoption level. It was observed that the adoption level of scientific pig production practices by small scale pig farmers in adopted villages is significantly higher than the adoption level of non-adopted villages.

Small Scale Pig Farming in Northern Shanxi: An Environment, Health and Development Perspective

Over the past three years, under the combined impact of national policies and markets, the landscape of the pig farming industry in China is undergoing great changes, with a large number of medium and small farmers and scattered (sanyang) breeding households withdrawing from the market, and the market shares of large-scale pig breeding enterprises rising. Pressure from environmental protection and industrial transformation is placing the scattered breeding households, which were formerly the mainstay of the breeding industry, in a dilemma. Research and public opinion generally believe that sharp fluctuations in pig prices and environmental pollution from pig breeding are the primary negative effects of the sector and that both are due to the lack of macro control and the nonstandard practices of scattered households. But is this really the case? Drawing on qualitative fieldwork in northern Shanxi, this paper aims to provide a case study of scattered pig breeding and its interaction with environmental protection. Empirical research found that, in this region of Northern Shanxi, where animal husbandry and horticulture are equally important and complementary, pig breeding by scattered households does not put obvious pressure on the environment. Although there is still room for improvement in policy implementation and cooperation among government departments, and so on, pig farming is part of a sustainable agricultural system. Instead of discouraging scattered pig breeding everywhere, policy needs to take local environmental conditions and the relationship between horticulture and livestock rearing into account.

Traditional Livestock System and Pathologies Risk in the Small-Scale Pig Farming in Kamituga Sub County, Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo

Traditional Livestock System and Pathologies Risk in the Small-Scale Pig Farming in Kamituga Sub County, Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo

Peasants and Pork: The Changing Contribution of Pig Farming to Rural Livelihoods

Drawing on data from the National Agricultural Censuses (1996-2016) and the National Rural Fixed Observation Point Survey (1986-2018), this article provides a holistic review of China’s pig breeding development during the last three decades. Pig farming had developed from extremely small-scale rearing in the mid-1980s to large scale husbandry in the mid-1990s, yet a majority of pigs were still reared by individual agricultural households. From the mid-1990s, individual pig breeders began to withdraw because of the growing opportunity cost of labor and the falling need for organic manure in agricultural activities. Small-scale pig farming has been replaced by highly commercialized and specialized companies who have further collaborated with expert large-scale pig farming households to form a whole pig breeding and sales chain. But even now, pig rearing is still important to the livelihoods of poor rural households. Policies and subsidies should be in place to protect the interests of individual breeders.

Investigating the Socio-Economic and Livelihoods Impacts of African Swine Fever in Timor-Leste: An Application of Spatial Group Model Building.

Small-scale pig farming is highly important to the economic and social status of households in Timor-Leste. The presence of an African Swine Fever (ASF) outbreak in Timor-Leste was confirmed in 2019, a major concern given that around 70% of agricultural households practice pig farming. This research used a virtual spatial group model building process to construct a concept model to better understand the main feedback loops that determine the socio-economic and livelihood impacts of the ASF outbreak. After discussing the interaction of reinforcing and balancing feedback loops in the concept model, potential leverage points for intervention are suggested that could reduce the impacts of ASF within socio-economic spheres. These include building trust between small-scale farmers and veterinary technicians, strengthening government veterinary services, and the provision of credit conditional on biosecurity investments to help restock the industry. This conceptual model serves as a starting point for further research and the future development of a quantitative system dynamics (SD) model which would allow ex-ante scenario-testing of various policy and technical mitigation strategies of ASF outbreaks in Timor-Leste and beyond. Lessons learned from the blended offline/online approach to training and workshop facilitation are also explored in the paper.

Potential use of piggery excreta as a viable source of bioethanol production

Livestock waste products have been shown to be a viable source of biofuel. Although research have shown that animal excreta may be used to produce bioethanol, there are scanty of reports on the use of piggery (Sus scrofa) excreta for bioethanol production. The goal of this study was to produce bioethanol on a modest scale from pig excreta using a conventional anaerobically fermentation technique with Saccharomyces cervices. Using piggery excreta, we were able to produce 0.765–1.02 gm/200 mL of 89.59 percent pure bioethanol. Gas chromatography (GC) was used to evaluate the single distilled solvent generated from the pretreated (with 4% H2SO4) and fermented pig excreta, which indicated 89.59 percent purity and a retention time of 4.104 min that was closer to absolute ethanol values. The signal peaks indicating the CH3, OH, and CH2 groups of ethyl alcohol were detected employing proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) analysis of the fermented distilled colourless from pig excreta. The antibacterial activity of bioethanol was also evaluated against several gram positive and negative pathogens, and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was found to be between 11 and 25 g/mL. The potential of piggery excreta as an alternative source of bioethanol production and antibacterial agents were identified in this early investigation. In view of public health concerns as well as pollution prevention, pig manure disposal is a critical concern. In developing countries, industrialized small-scale pig farming has exploded, but the environmental issues that come with it have yet to be fully recognized. This research might lead to a more inventive and intelligent method for piggery waste/excreta disposal. As a result, policymakers may wish to consider adopting this approach for piggery farm waste/excreta management in the future, resulting in cleaner production and improved environmental conditions.