Small-scale Mining Operations Research Articles

Life cycle assessment model for small-scale coal mining operations with equivalent coal output: a greener perspective towards coal mining

Life cycle assessment model for small-scale coal mining operations with equivalent coal output: a greener perspective towards coal mining

Exploring the risk factors to formal financing for artisanal and small-scale mining operations

This article explores the risk factors limiting access to formal financing in the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) industry. It is argued in this study that to tackle the funding constraints in the ASM industry a bottom-up approach that captures the perspective of the miners who are engaged in these activities themselves is required. This involves understanding more about the limiting factors that inhibit the miners’ access to formal lending from the perspective of the miners themselves. This will provide better guidance when formal lenders scrutinize the documents for issuing loans to this group of miners. This study draws data from participants in the mining industry and from formal lenders who lend to operators in the industry, using grounded theory. Results of the analyses of the study data helped to underpin the credit risk factors that limits access of ASM operators to formal sources of funding. With the knowledge of these risk factors, lenders are aware of the critical areas for due diligence, which minimises their risk exposure and can potentially encourage loan issuance to this sector. Adequate funding for the ASM industry will improve their contribution to the national economic development. With access to formal financing which this study promotes, ASM companies are enabled to achieve safe and healthy operations, with reduced negative impact on the environment. Also, formal financing will limit the prospect of vested interests of informal financiers in the industry, thereby increasing the earnings of the miners from the operations and improving their living conditions. Thus, a well-financed ASM sector can help developing nations across the world to move closer to meeting key targets linked to the Sustainable Developments Goals (SDGs), especially SDG1 (end poverty), SDG2 (zero hunger), SDG8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG10 (reduced inequality).

Development of artificial neural network based mathematical models for predicting small scale quarry powder factor for efficient fragmentation coupled with uniformity index model

Blasting is the primary method for reducing rock size in small-scale mining operations. The primary purpose of blasting is to assist rock mass reduction and transportation from the mine to the processing facility. The explosive charge utilized in this blasting operation has an impact on production output, safety, and profitability. The explosive powder factor is used in mining to calculate the quantity of explosive required per mass of rock fragmented, and this study looks at how different powder factors affect blast fragmentation. A machine learning approach was used in this study to optimize explosive use in small-scale quarries. This study employed data from a small-scale dolomite quarry in Akoko Edo, Nigeria, for artificial neural network (ANN) modeling and uniformity index model creation (10 production blasts and 38 blast record datasets). Powder factors greater than 0.7–0.8 kg/m3 result in a lower uniformity index, according to an analysis of monitored blast results. The results showed that powder factors of 0.7 kg/m3 (between 1.6 and 1.7) had the highest uniformity index. According to the findings, the small-scale optimum blast uniformity index is between 1.33 and 1.68. The proposed ANN model performs well in terms of prediction accuracy, as determined by five error indices with coefficients of correlation (R2) of 0.997 on the training dataset and 0.97 on the testing dataset. Based on the model performance analysis results, the suggested ANN model can be used to improve the small-scale blast powder factor in actual applications.

Architectures of Extraction: Labor and Industrial Ruination in Highland Bolivia

ABSTRACT What happens when the architectures of extraction, once intimately constituted by capitalist and racial forms of exclusion, begin to rot? Focusing on a Bolivian tin mine, this paper examines the social effects of deteriorating “architectures of extraction,” a category that includes both aboveground infrastructures and belowground networks of tunnels and scaffolding. First, I argue that when Llallagua’s extractive architecture was built, it helped shore up a connection between tin mining, working-class identity, and revolutionary nationalism – which in turn became bound up with mestizaje, an ideology of racial and cultural whitening. Second, I argue that the ruination of this extractive architecture has had ambivalent implications for the racial politics of contemporary small-scale mining operations that continue to operate inside the mountain. On the one hand, the rotting structures reinforce regional racial hierarchies in a variety of ways, but on the other hand, the slow degradation of the physical structures has made the corresponding social structures more porous, if not fully permeable, to members of regional Indigenous ayllus. While access to the financial benefits of mining is far from unambiguously liberatory, this paper nevertheless suggests that the political possibilities contained within the ruins of extractive architectures are not uniformly adverse.

Development of a geomechanical model based on suitable estimations of GSI and UCS in mining production slopes at the TilTil district, central Chile

The majority of applied geomechanical models are poorly suited for use in small-scale mining operations owing to the time, costs, and technical knowledge needed to usefully apply them. This means that it is often not possible to accurately obtain an adequate account of rock properties in advancing mining areas, which can lead to geomechanical related problems such as rockfalls and slope failures. Here we propose an adaptation to an existing methodology which allows the construction of a simple geomechanical model, that can be adjusted depending on mining developments, and used to develop recommendations for the design parameters of mining production slopes in small-scale open-pit operations. The adapted model, which considers the use of rock mechanics tests on rocks collected over a district level, along with UCS estimation, GSI characterization and FEM modelling, is based on an estimation of the parameters derived by1; namely material constants mi, mb, s, and a. Results show that the Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS), measured for rocks in the same district, serves as an adequate estimation of the specific UCS in the advancing mining area in the modified geomechanical model when both the field estimates and direct sampling are within a determined range.

Utilization of Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) as an Admixture for the Synthesis of a Gold Mine Tailings-Based Geopolymer Composite

The repurposing of gold (Au) mine tailings from artisanal and small-scale mining (ASGM) operations via alkali activation technology is a promising strategy for waste reduction in developing countries. Direct activation of mine tailings, however, is challenging because these materials contain relatively low aluminum (Al)-bearing minerals. In this study, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) was elucidated as a high Al-bearing waste derived-admixture for the synthesis of an ASGM tailings-based geopolymer composite. Semi-quantitative XRD analysis showed that the tailings contained quartz (SiO2) (~58%), pyrite (FeS2) (~20%) and calcite (CaCO3) (~15%) with minor to trace amounts of aluminosilicates (~7%). Substantial amounts of environmentally regulated pollutants such as mercury (Hg) (40 mg/kg), lead (Pb) (8430 mg/kg) and arsenic (As) (300 mg/kg) were also found in the tailings. SEM-EDS, XRD and ATR-FTIR results showed the successful formation of a hybrid geopolymer-CASH matrix, which improved the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of geopolymer composites from ~5 MPa to ~7 MPa. Furthermore, POFA did not significantly affect the thermal resistivity of geopolymer composites based on thermal analysis. Finally, the TCLP results showed that the Pb leaching concentrations from ASGM tailings exceeded environmental standards (~15,000 µg/L), which was suppressed after alkali activation to 300–500 µg/L. This means that POFA addition to ASGM tailings-based geopolymer composite improved not only its applicability as backfill, pavements and bricks but also its ability to immobilize toxic elements.

Defying the gloom: In search of the ‘golden’ practices of small-scale mining operations

Dominant narratives on artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) often portray mining regions as ‘informal’ zones that suffer massively from environmental degradation problems. Such insistence on the poor environmental performance of ASM zones has dovetailed with a lack of scholarly attention to some of the ‘golden’ environmental management practices taking place in some of these mining areas. In this paper, we explore how the operations of a formalised (registered) small-scale mining operator in Ghana, as objectified in its obligatory and ethical functions, contribute to reducing pollution and mine-degraded landscapes, which have long been viewed as the inevitable consequence of ASM. Emphasizing how the dynamic interplay between resources and environmental demands may come to support public policy, our study shows how mutually constituting demands on mining in highly differentiated contexts could translate into productive outcomes. Contrary to the popular perception that ASM operators are not good stewards of the environment, findings from our study suggest that these operators can be caretakers of the environment and local communities through land reclamation mechanisms. Localisation of labour could, however, contribute to more sustainable livelihoods in mining communities and help curb rising community tensions.

Governance challenges in Ghana’s artisanal and small-scale mining (galamsey) sector: Is stakeholder interaction the way forward?

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations have surged in Ghana in recent years causing many environmental and social problems. The government has employed the military to eradicate illegal mining operations. However, despite the military’s countless efforts to clamp down on these illegal miners, it appears their involvement is not yielding the expected outcome. Several forms of collaboration and collusion are reported in the literature to have taken place between the illegal miners and the local stakeholders. However, little attention is given to how the interaction between the various stakeholders in the ASM sector can help remedy the galamsey menace. Drawing on the collaborative stakeholder participation perspective in natural resource governance and a qualitative research approach, this paper looks at the small-scale mining sector conundrum and how collaborative stakeholder engagement can contribute to transcending the problem. Results show that the collaboration between the stakeholders seldom involved key community actors like the chiefs and landlords in granting small-scale mining licences. We call for strong collaboration between the stakeholders as a good step to fighting illegal mining activities in Ghana. The study contributes to knowledge on enhancing collaborative mineral resource governance in developing countries.

Artisanal and small-scale mining formalization challenges in Ghana: Explaining grassroots perspectives

Ghana legally recognizes ASM as a legitimate livelihood source with formalization blueprints for operators. However, the regulation of ASM activities in Ghana can largely be described as unsuccessful. Evidence shows that more than 85% of small-scale mining operations still occur in the informal and illegal sector of the economy outside the purview of state regulation. This paper examines grassroots perspectives on why despite existing formalization initiatives, miners continue to operate ‘illegally’. It finds that, first, the transient and migratory character of local mines do not synchronize with the complex and lengthy bureaucratic licensing regime currently in place, defeating any economic logic for illegal miners wanting to formalize. Second, the regulatory regime takes on a generic formalization framework for all of the country's diverse ASM operations and fails to link the various types of the sector's operations to appropriate levels and forms of control, neglecting the compliance capacity of the sector's rudimentary and subsistence operators. Greater institutional support for miners is recommended to build their capacity and credits support for their operations to improve the longevity of local mines. Also, urgent policy reforms are needed to enhance a multi-tier reclassification of Ghana's ASM sector to create the necessary conditions for compliance and accountability from all miners.

Impact of the ban on illegal mining activities on raw water quality: A case-study of Konongo Water Treatment Plant, Ashanti Region of Ghana

The Government of Ghana prohibited Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) operations from 2017 to 2018 as part of its strategy to address the socio-environmental issues caused by illegal mining activities, also referred to as “galamsey” operations. This study assessed the trend in the water quality of raw water abstracted at the Konongo Water Treatment Plant (WTP) for treatment before and after implementing the ban on “galamsey” operations. The main source of raw water for the Konongo WTP is the Anuru River. Secondary data on physicochemical water quality from 2006 to 2019 was sourced from the Konongo WTP and the Ashanti Regional Water Quality Assurance Unit of Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL). Mann-Kendall seasonality test was used to determine trends in the water quality data using XLSTAT statistical tool. The results showed a statistically significant (5% level of significance) upward trend in colour, turbidity, temperature, total iron, and sulphate before the ban on “galamsey” activities. There was statistically significant evidence of a downward trend in total hardness, calcium hardness, turbidity, total alkalinity, and chloride after the ban on “galamsey” operations.

Implications of credit constraint on the formalization of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in sub-Saharan Africa

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations continue to grow across sub-Saharan Africa and serve as a source of livelihood to many rural communities. Owing to safety, health, environmental, and social concerns, the occupation has been regarded as a menace in several sub-Sahara African countries. Recent studies in the field of ASM prescribe formalization as a way to tame its excesses while enhancing its potential. This paper explores the concept of formalization as it relates to ASM and how it is being affected by the funding situation. The paper seeks to address the question as to whether formalization of artisanal mining operations can achieve the desired results in view of the lingering credit constraints in this mining subsector. It is recommended that, as a way of extending the scope of formalization, focus should be placed not only on access to credit in ASM but also towards optimizing the creditworthiness of ASM firms, with the goal of improving the viability of the operations.

Beyond the doom: Sustainable water management practices of small-scale mining operations

Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) is often implicated as a source of pollution to water systems. In this paper, we explore the water management systems of a formalised small-scale mining operator in Ghana to explicate how its operational activities and organising routines contribute to sustainable water management in practice. Emphasizing how sustainable management of water bodies play out in organising, our study highlights the underpinning mechanisms shaping the shift to environmentally sustainable operations. By unpacking the complex practices of water management in ASM operations, the study extends understanding of how sustainability driven practices emerge and comes to be identified and labelled in the context of an industry historically tagged as an ‘enemy of the environment’, and the consequences that follow. Thus, contrary to the dominant logic of stigmatizing ASM as water polluting champions, our study suggests that ASM operators could be caretakers of water bodies and the environment. We conclude by highlighting implications for policy on sustainable water management.

Socio-demographic factors affecting artisanal and small-scale mining (galamsey) operations in Ghana

In spite of the persistent efforts by the responsible state institutions to eradicate galamsey operations in Ghana, little attention is given to the inhabitants' characteristics that may affect the surge in illegal mining operations. This study was designed to investigate whether local community dwellers' socio-demographic characteristics affect their participation in galamsey activities–an aspect that has not been independently investigated in the scientific literature. Cross-sectional survey quantitative data were sourced using 342 semi-structured household questionnaires. The results showed that the majority (69.3%) of the local dwellers engaged in galamsey operations. The binary logistic regression model showed that socio-demographic variables such as age, marital status, religious status and educational status of the respondents significantly determined their participation in illegal mining activities. The study, therefore, concludes that local dwellers’ socio-demographic characteristics significantly influence their participation in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations and contribute to the surge in illegal mining activities in Ghana. The study recommends that the Government of Ghana and related stakeholders should focus on creating more youth jobs of significant prospects in local communities. In addition, investing in education and promoting the agenda of higher educational attainment in rural areas is a forward-looking step to reducing the growing illegal mining activities in the country.

Predicting the peak particle velocity from rock blasting operations using Bayesian approach

Measuring the blast-induced ground vibration at blasting sites is very important, to plan and avoid adverse effects of blasting in terms of the peak particle velocity (PPV). However, the measurement of PPV often requires time, cost, and logistic commitment, which may not be economical for small-scale mining operations. This has prompted the development of numerous regression equations in the literature to estimate PPV from a relatively easier to estimate scaled distance (SD) measurement. With numerous regression equations available in the literature, there is a challenge of how to select the appropriate model for a specific blasting site, more so that rocks behave differently from site to site because of different geological processes that rocks are subjected to. This study develops a method that selects appropriate models for specific blasting sites by comparing the evidence and occurrence probability of different regression models. The appropriate model is the model with the highest evidence and occurrence probability given the available blasting site SD data. The selected model is then integrated with prior knowledge and available blasting SD data in Bayesian framework for probabilistic characterization of PPV. The SD and PPV data at the opencast coal mine, Jharia coalfield in the Dhanbad district of Jharkhand, India, is used to illustrate and validate the approach. The mean and standard deviation of simulated PPV samples from the proposed approach are 12.38 mm/s and 7.36 mm/s, respectively, which are close to the mean of 12.03 mm/s and standard deviation of 9.24 mm/s estimated from the measured PPV at the site. In addition, the probability distribution of the simulated PPV samples is consistent with the probability distribution of the measured PPV at the blasting site.

Renewable energy can make small-scale mining in Europe more feasible

As one of the largest energy consumers and greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters, the mining industry is switching to renewable energy to help reduce its energy and environmental impacts. There are already renewable energy systems (RES) in operation at large-scale mines. However, for off-grid small-scale mining operations, conventional diesel generators are still preferred given their mobility and modularity. The aim of this paper is to assess the techno-economic feasibility of RES for switch-on, switch-off mining, an emerging concept for mobile small-scale mining, in Europe. Simulations were performed using the HOMER Pro software to evaluate whether mobile and modular containerised RES available on the market are economically viable compared with diesel generators for potential mine sites across Europe. The results suggests that mobile and modular containerised RES are technically and financially feasible for powering switch-on, switch-off mining at different geographical locations in Europe, with varying system designs depending on the renewable resources available and providing significant reductions in GHG and air pollutant emissions. However, the use of RES in SSM could potentially have both positive and negative environmental and social impacts from a life cycle perspective, which extend beyond the mine site due to a diverse supply chain and deserve further research.

Artisanal and small-scale mining activities as post-mining land use in abandoned mine sites: a case of Giyani and Musina areas, Limpopo Province of South Africa

South Africa has many artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activities that some are registered and others informal and illegal. This paper presents an overview of ASM operations in the vicinity of abandoned mine sites found in Giyani and Musina areas, Limpopo Provine of South Africa. It looks at the mining processes, environmental problems, and health and safety risks of ASM in the area. It also provideds a discussion of practical ways of dealing with the problems of artisanal and small-scale mining operations in a harmonized way with the rehabilitation of the abandoned mine sites. The exploitation of waste rock dumps for aggregate production in Musina demonstrated that formalized ASM activities can be the best alternative uses of the abandoned mine sites. However, artisanal gold mining around Giyani revealed the health and safety risks and environmental problems of these operations. The artisanal gold mining activities worsened the health and safety and the environmental problems of the abandoned mine sites. Therefore, this paper recommends that the efforts of coming up with strategies to formalize and regulate artisanal mining in South Africa be deepened for these activities to be accepteble as sustainable as post-mining land-uses in abandoned mines.

A mixed-method investigations of work, government and social factors associated with severe injuries in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations

The susceptibility of miners to severe injuries in Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) operations is significantly higher than in the larger-scale mining industry. However, the most prevalent and least studied safety aspects are the factors affecting the severe injuries and miners’ awareness of the state of their health and safety. Severe injuries are ASM-related injuries that have resulted in more than two weeks lost workdays. This paper aims to demonstrate that severe injuries in ASM industry do not occur simply due to individual personality but also because of other underlying factors like ignorance of illegality of the activity. The paper also reports on the injured miners’ perception of the nature of health and safety. Two hundred and thirty-six miners from Migori County of Western Kenya ASM site were administered closed-ended structured survey questionnaires, followed by face-to-face qualitative interview of thirty-three severely injured mineworkers identified from the quantitative survey respondents. The survey results were analysed using logistic regression. While the interview results were subjected to thematic analysis, the identified themes confirmed or complemented quantitative findings as well as demonstrated the state of occupational health and safety (OHS) in ASM industry. The results showed that alcohol and drug usage, inadequate earnings, safety training, lack of hazard identification and risk control measures, lack of safety equipment, poor management-miners interaction, poor communication of safety concerns, and government support were indicators of poor safety culture influenced the recurrence of severe injuries. Research outcomes will support decision-making processes and implementation of programs in this industry.

Spatiotemporal changes on land surface temperature, land and water resources of host communities due to artisanal mining.

Assessment of land use/land cover change (LULCC) and its effects on the natural environment are important in policy decision making for sustainable environment. This study investigated and assessed the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining operations on environmental degradation resulting from such activities in selected host communities (Akoko Edo, Ijero and Ilesa). Vegetation, water, built-up expansion and land surface temperature dynamics were examined and analysed using appropriate indices for the years 1987, 2002 and 2017. A gradual decrease in the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) values was observed across Akoko Edo and Ijero Ekiti with a corresponding change in the highest NDVI values while Ilesa witnessed a higher NDVI value in 2017 relative to the previous years. The majority of the normalised difference water index (NDWI) values for 2017 appear to be above 0 in all the host communities. Mean land surface temperature (LST) values are in the order 24.63 °C (1986) < 25.26 °C (2002) < 26.32 °C (2017) for Ijero Ekiti study area while mean LST values are in the order 24.30 °C (1986) < 24.46 °C (2002) < 25.82 °C (2017) in Ilesa study area. Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) seemed a more reliable indicator as the index was able to enhance the water surfaces more clearly as indicated in the case of Akoko Edo study area. Due to its high heat capacity, high land surface temperatures were experienced over urban areas and uncultivated bare land during all the periods of study. The study showed that changes in land covers have affected the normal functioning of the habitats through urbanisation. Adequate natural resource management is therefore necessary to ensure sustainable development through effective policy formulation.

To Mine or Not to Mine: Socio-Demographic Factors Affecting Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (Galamsey) Operations in Ghana

To Mine or Not to Mine: Socio-Demographic Factors Affecting Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (Galamsey) Operations in Ghana

Mining and Environmental Rights in Zimbabwe. A Case of Zvishavane District

This paper examines the impact of artisanal small-scale mining on the environmental rights of communities in Zvishavane, Zimbabwe. All over the world, mining has been significant in enhancing the livelihoods of the people by reducing poverty and ensuring food security. Despite its major contribution to economic growth and development, mining is responsible for environmental degradation. The environmental rights of many indigenous communities in Zimbabwe are violated by small-scale mining operations. Zvishavane is one of the marginalized communities in Zimbabwe where all types of mining activities are taking place as the district is located along the Great Dyke mineral belt. The dominant mining entities in the district are artisanal small-scale miners exploiting gold and chrome. Given the low capitalization that characterizes artisanal small-scale miners, the degree to which these entities comply with the country's legislation on environmental protection becomes very doubtful. The study was conducted through interviews and focus group discussions with key informants in the Mapanzure community in Zvishavane. The findings of this study highlight that artisanal small-scale chrome and gold miners are largely responsible for the contamination of water sources, land degradation, excessive air pollution and deforestation, which exposes mining communities in Zvishavane to health hazards such as cholera, bilharzia, asthma and cirrhosis. Findings of this study provide valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners on sustainable mining in marginalized communities. Keywords: Mining, Environmental rights, Artisanal small-scale miners and Zvishavane District DOI: 10.7176/DCS/10-8-06 Publication date: August 31 st 2020