Small-scale Mining Operations Research Articles

A mixed-method investigations of work, government and social factors associated with severe injuries in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations

The susceptibility of miners to severe injuries in Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) operations is significantly higher than in the larger-scale mining industry. However, the most prevalent and least studied safety aspects are the factors affecting the severe injuries and miners’ awareness of the state of their health and safety. Severe injuries are ASM-related injuries that have resulted in more than two weeks lost workdays. This paper aims to demonstrate that severe injuries in ASM industry do not occur simply due to individual personality but also because of other underlying factors like ignorance of illegality of the activity. The paper also reports on the injured miners’ perception of the nature of health and safety. Two hundred and thirty-six miners from Migori County of Western Kenya ASM site were administered closed-ended structured survey questionnaires, followed by face-to-face qualitative interview of thirty-three severely injured mineworkers identified from the quantitative survey respondents. The survey results were analysed using logistic regression. While the interview results were subjected to thematic analysis, the identified themes confirmed or complemented quantitative findings as well as demonstrated the state of occupational health and safety (OHS) in ASM industry. The results showed that alcohol and drug usage, inadequate earnings, safety training, lack of hazard identification and risk control measures, lack of safety equipment, poor management-miners interaction, poor communication of safety concerns, and government support were indicators of poor safety culture influenced the recurrence of severe injuries. Research outcomes will support decision-making processes and implementation of programs in this industry.

Spatiotemporal changes on land surface temperature, land and water resources of host communities due to artisanal mining.

Assessment of land use/land cover change (LULCC) and its effects on the natural environment are important in policy decision making for sustainable environment. This study investigated and assessed the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining operations on environmental degradation resulting from such activities in selected host communities (Akoko Edo, Ijero and Ilesa). Vegetation, water, built-up expansion and land surface temperature dynamics were examined and analysed using appropriate indices for the years 1987, 2002 and 2017. A gradual decrease in the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) values was observed across Akoko Edo and Ijero Ekiti with a corresponding change in the highest NDVI values while Ilesa witnessed a higher NDVI value in 2017 relative to the previous years. The majority of the normalised difference water index (NDWI) values for 2017 appear to be above 0 in all the host communities. Mean land surface temperature (LST) values are in the order 24.63 °C (1986) < 25.26 °C (2002) < 26.32 °C (2017) for Ijero Ekiti study area while mean LST values are in the order 24.30 °C (1986) < 24.46 °C (2002) < 25.82 °C (2017) in Ilesa study area. Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) seemed a more reliable indicator as the index was able to enhance the water surfaces more clearly as indicated in the case of Akoko Edo study area. Due to its high heat capacity, high land surface temperatures were experienced over urban areas and uncultivated bare land during all the periods of study. The study showed that changes in land covers have affected the normal functioning of the habitats through urbanisation. Adequate natural resource management is therefore necessary to ensure sustainable development through effective policy formulation.

To Mine or Not to Mine: Socio-Demographic Factors Affecting Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (Galamsey) Operations in Ghana

To Mine or Not to Mine: Socio-Demographic Factors Affecting Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (Galamsey) Operations in Ghana

Mining and Environmental Rights in Zimbabwe. A Case of Zvishavane District

This paper examines the impact of artisanal small-scale mining on the environmental rights of communities in Zvishavane, Zimbabwe. All over the world, mining has been significant in enhancing the livelihoods of the people by reducing poverty and ensuring food security. Despite its major contribution to economic growth and development, mining is responsible for environmental degradation. The environmental rights of many indigenous communities in Zimbabwe are violated by small-scale mining operations. Zvishavane is one of the marginalized communities in Zimbabwe where all types of mining activities are taking place as the district is located along the Great Dyke mineral belt. The dominant mining entities in the district are artisanal small-scale miners exploiting gold and chrome. Given the low capitalization that characterizes artisanal small-scale miners, the degree to which these entities comply with the country's legislation on environmental protection becomes very doubtful. The study was conducted through interviews and focus group discussions with key informants in the Mapanzure community in Zvishavane. The findings of this study highlight that artisanal small-scale chrome and gold miners are largely responsible for the contamination of water sources, land degradation, excessive air pollution and deforestation, which exposes mining communities in Zvishavane to health hazards such as cholera, bilharzia, asthma and cirrhosis. Findings of this study provide valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners on sustainable mining in marginalized communities. Keywords: Mining, Environmental rights, Artisanal small-scale miners and Zvishavane District DOI: 10.7176/DCS/10-8-06 Publication date: August 31 st 2020

Rethinking the concept of small-scale mining for technologically advanced raw materials production

The purpose of this paper is conceptual analysis and critique, informing development of a modern technologically-advanced small-scale mining (SSM) concept. The need for SSM has recently been articulated in a European mining policy context. In an attempt to secure access to minerals, European strategy includes the development of new approaches to the extraction of resources from ore deposits, including by SSM operations. However, the application of traditional thinking and definitions of small-scale mining to a European context is problematic, such that the evolution of modern smaller scale mining also requires re-thinking of the underpinning concepts. We discuss various company structures, scales of mining and their specific features. We differentiate SSM from “artisanal small-scale mining” (ASM) and discuss its relationship to “large-scale mining” (LSM). From this analysis, we distill the key features and criteria of SSM and raise important questions concerning social and environmental sustainability in relation to SSM. We suggest that greater definition of what constitutes technological small-scale mining in a European context will substantially improve further research in the development of mining solutions and contribute to the discussion on the future of mining both within and outside of Europe.

The role of geophysics in enhancing mine planning decision-making in small-scale mining.

Small-scale mining usually operates under high geological uncertainty conditions. This turns mine planning into a complex and sometimes inaccurate task, resulting in low productivity and substantial variability in the quantity and quality of the mineral products. This research demonstrates how the application of a novel methodology that relies on traditional and low-cost geophysical methods can contribute to mine planning in small-scale mining. A combination of resistivity and induced polarization methods is applied to enhance mine planning decision-making in three small-scale mining operations. This approach allows for the acquisition of new data regarding local geological settings, supporting geological modelling and enhancing decision-making processes for mine planning in a timely and low-cost fashion. The results indicate time savings of up to 77% and cost reductions of up to 94% as compared with conventional methods, contributing to more effective mine planning and, ultimately, improving sustainability in small-scale mining.

Risk Factors for the Number of Sustained Injuries in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Operation.

BackgroundThe relationship between risk factors and likelihood of occupational injury has been studied. However, what has been published has only provided a limited explanation of why some of the employees working in the same environment as other employees suffered a single-injury event, while other employees experienced multiple-injury events. This article reports on an investigation of whether artisanal and small-scale miners in Migori County of Kenya are susceptible to a single-injury or multiple-injury incidences, and if so, what underpinning parameters explain the differences between the single incident injured and the multiple incident injured group. Mine management commitment to safety in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations is also considered.Materials and methodsThe research objectives were achieved by surveying 162 uninjured and 74 injured miners. A structured, closed-end questionnaire was administered to participants after the stratification of the study population and systematic selection of the representative samples.ResultsThe results showed that most injured miners suffer a single-injury incident rather than experiencing multiple-injury events, and laceration (28.40%) was the common injury suffered by the miners. The analysis showed that the risk factors for the single incident injured group were not similar to those in the multiple incident injured group. The research also found mine workers have low opinion about mine management/owners commitment to safety.ConclusionThe study concluded that mine management and miners need to be educated and sensitized on the dangers of this operation. Provision of safety gears and positive safety culture must be a top priority for management.

Effects of Mercury (Hg) on Soil Nematodes: A Microcosm Approach.

Mercury (Hg), one of the most toxic heavy metals, is commonly used in the gold extraction process in small-scale mining operations in many countries. Our previous field work on the impact of mining on soil nematode assemblages in a small-scale mining area in Sibutad, the Philippines, revealed no significant negative effects despite sometimes strongly elevated Hg concentrations. Using a microcosm approach, we now applied similar Hg concentrations as commonly found in these field sites (2.5, 5, and 10mg/kg Hg) and determined their impact on nematode assemblages from a different soil with different physicochemical soil attributes. Our results demonstrate (a) limited "bottling" effects (incubation effects) after a 45-day incubation period: a nematode abundance decrease of up to 37%, but absence of significant differences in diversity and nematode assemblage composition; (b) that total nematode abundance already decreased at Hg concentrations (2.5mg/kg), which did not yield significant impacts on other nematode assemblage descriptors, such as assemblage composition and different diversity indices; and (c) that the Hg concentrations found in the Sibutad field sites can be detrimental to soil nematode assemblages. The discrepancy between our microcosm and the field-based results is probably related to differences in physicochemical soil attributes (e.g., OM contents, soil pH), which suggests that nematode-based environmental assessments should be interpreted in a context-dependent manner.

Economic and social challenges faced by injured artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Kenya

Miners in Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) operations have been evidenced to sustain injuries frequently. However, literature review reveals a lack of research in this domain especially in understanding the challenges faced by injured miners and their families. Consequently, in order to address this lacuna, the current study aims to provide a comprehensive insight into the post-injury economic and social issues. A semi-structured qualitative interview was administered to severely injured miners. The survey comprised questions pertaining to the study participants’ economic, social and lifestyle challenges post sustaining the injury. Severely injured miners were identified, purposively selected and interviewed until the sample achieved ideal saturation. This point was reached after the interview of thirty-three seriously injured miners. The thematic analysis results revealed a reduction in economic sufficiency, negative social health and alterations in lifestyle. The study concluded an impending need of educating the miners on the ASM-related hazards and associated health problems. The study encourages the mine owners and relevant government institutions to develop policies that protect injured miners and their families. Overall, this study has enhanced the understanding of the issues faced by workers in the informal or formal small-scale industries.

The Clinical Importance of the Mercury Problem in Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining

Artisanal small-scale mining is widely operated in various countries serving as a livelihood to many rural communities. However, it is a significant source of environmental mercury contamination which affects human health. Amalgamation and amalgam smelting, two significant steps in the artisanal small-scale mining operations generate lots of mercury vapors, leading to chronic exposure among miners. Thus, this article seeks to provide a topical review of recent findings on organ damage and metabolic disorders among mercury-exposed artisanal small-scale miners with emphasis on the contributing factors such as personal protective equipment usage and artisanal small-scale gold mining-specific occupational activities. Also, insights into the effect of mercury intoxication and mechanisms of action on organ and metabolic systems among exposed individuals are provided.

Integrating gravity and magnetic field data to delineate structurally controlled gold mineralization in the Sefwi Belt of Ghana

Gravity and magnetic surveys were used to delineate potential gold mineralization zones in the Sefwi belt of Ghana. The study area is an intrusive dominated area that hosts pockets of small scale mining operations locally referred to as Galamsey. These Galamsey operations are not guided by a scientific approach to back the trend of gold mineralization which is conventionally mined. The study aimed at mapping lithological units, structural setting and relating Galamsey sites to delineate potential zones of gold mineralization. A Scintrex CG5 gravimeter and GEM's Overhauser magnetometer were used for gravity and magnetic data acquisition respectively. The magnetic data were corrected and enhancing filters such as reduction to the pole (RTP), analytical signal and first vertical derivative were applied using Oasis montaj 7.1. Gravity data were also reduced to the geoid using the Oasis montaj software to produce a complete Bouguer anomaly map. The regional/residual separation technique produced a residual gravity map. The RTP and analytical signal filters from the magnetic data and residual gravity anomaly map from the gravity data helped in mapping belt type (Dixcove) Birimian granitoids and mafic intrusive unit, interpreted as gabbro. The first vertical derivative filter was useful in mapping NE/SW minor faults and crosscutting dykes largely concentrated in the belt type Birimian granitoids. All the three mapped Galamsey sites fell on a minor fault and are associated with the belt type granitoids which were used in delineating four potential zones of gold mineralization.

Heavy metal bioaccessibility and health risks in the contaminated soil of an abandoned, small-scale lead and zinc mine

The lack of management in small-scale mining operations has the potential for negative repercussions, e.g., mine collapses, compared with well-regulated large-scale mines. Here, we used an in vitro model to investigate heavy metal soil pollution characteristics and their attendant health risks in an abandoned, small-scale lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) mine located in southwestern China that had suffered from collapse. Our results showed the following: (1) Even the mine had been closed for many years, the soil was still heavily polluted by Pb, cadmium (Cd), and Zn, and there is a risk of secondary pollution. Pb, Zn, and Cd concentrations in the mining areas were all approximately 22-42 times higher than the background soil levels of Guangxi Province. (2) Cd had the largest bioaccessibility, and mining areas tend to have soils containing more bioaccessible metals (78 ± 14%, 27 ± 4%, and 38 ± 12% for Cd, Pb, and Zn in gastric phase and 40 ± 12%, 10 ± 5%, and 19 ± 8% in intestinal phase correspondingly). (3) Results of a stepwise, multiple regression analysis revealed that the total soil content of the three metals (Pb, Zn, and Cd), TOC (total organic carbon), soil composition, and Mn content were the main impact factors for the Pb, Cd, and Zn soil bioaccessibility in study area (R2 = 0.37~0.93). (4) A health risk assessment based on Pb, Cd, and Zn bioaccessibility indicated that the health risk for people in mine area is not high (HI is 1.07 at most and CR 2.40E-6 at most for children).

Assessing releases of mercury from small-scale gold mining sites in Ghana

The small-scale gold mining sector has been and continues to be identified as a major source of mercury contamination. Although many studies have assessed the human and ecological health impacts of mercury emissions in the vicinity of small-scale mining operations, only a handful have surveyed the source of the contamination: the sites themselves. This paper reports findings from an environmental analysis undertaken directly within three small-scale gold mining sites in Ghana. Using targeted soil and water sampling analysed through mass spectrometry, the findings are compared with findings in the literature and safety guidelines to gauge the scale of contamination at surveyed sites. The analysis reveals that there is widespread pollution, often several orders higher than background levels. Expanding upon this, the results are extrapolated to provide estimates for mercury emissions accountable to the artisanal mining sector for Ghana as a whole.

Stability evaluation and prediction of the Dongla reactivated ancient landslide as well as emergency mitigation for the Dongla Bridge

The Dongla Bridge, Muli County, China, is a key access road between counties in Sichuan Province and the only traffic facility for an important 500-kV electricity substation which provides power to nearby counties. In June 2011, during the bridge construction, an unknown landslide, subsequently named the Dongla Ancient Landslide (DAL), was encountered. Local reactivation of a portion of the DAL, termed the Dongla Reactivated Landslide (DRL), was indicated by evident ground deformation at the Dongla Bridge. In spite of this, transportation of some heavy electrical equipment to the substation was scheduled on 9 May 2013. So, to guarantee the stability and security of the bridge became a primary emergency task. Detailed field investigations of the landslide occurrence, monitoring and emergency mitigation construction were carried out in the period between 2011 and 2014. This resulted in a temporary stabilization of the revived landslide and ensured the timely transportation of the heavy electrical equipment. It is thought that the revival mechanism of the DRL is creep, translational sliding, and was mainly triggered by artificial slope-cutting, but also influenced by precipitation, river erosion, and man-made activities in the form of small-scale mining operations. Following complete failure of the DRL, the probability of landslide-dam and dam breach is proved to be small by risk analyses. This paper can provide an insight into the problems associated with the interaction between the human structures and landslide instabilities.

Interventions for Ensuring the Sustainability of the Small Scale Mining Sector in Namibia

Many reports have been written about the issues surrounding small scale miners’ challenges in Namibia; yet little has been done to address these challenges. There has been a fragmented approach to address these challenges. Various government arms and donor organizations have utilized piece meal methods in the past in trying to make improvements on the productivities across the sector, but with no meaningful success. This has led to the design and implementation of inappropriate technologies and support services for the sector. The structures of many of the semi-precious stones mining businesses are informal, with very little royalties received by the government. Miners often work informally or illegally and they fear government interference and they distrust outsiders, resulting in them withholding production information. The presence of small scale miners is quite often associated with major challenges, including poor safety and environmental management standards, the spread of communicable diseases and poor working conditions. The majority of the miners employ uncontrolled extraction techniques which damage the crystals and mineral specimens, resulting in intermediate and final products of low quality along with high wastage at the extraction stage. The vision of the Namibian government is to expand the range and value of semi-precious stones and jewelry products processed within Namibia, while curbing illicit flows of raw stones. This will simultaneously secure maximum benefit for the country. This study investigated the interventions aimed at making the small scale mining sector in Namibia sustainable. A baseline study was conducted to analyze the current situation and characterize the industry, including a SWOT analysis. Information was collected through questionnaires, interviews, consultative meetings, field visits and workshops in order to profile the sector. The baseline study results were used in developing interventions for improving artisanal and small scale mining operations. The main challenges for the Namibian semi-precious sector were identified as: factual information about raw material resources and its beneficiation are insufficient or not available, lack of skills, lack of education and access to finances, rudimentary exploration and mining practices, trading and logistics that are not functioning effectively and inadequate sector governance. One key finding of this study was that Namibia is not benefiting through value addition due partly to illicit flows of the uncut stones and to the fact that lapidary is not much pronounced to a greater extent. The following strategic interventions were identified as key in ensuring the sustainability of the small mining sector in Namibia: conducting geological assessment to identify new deposits and quantify the existing ones, improving exploration and mining practices, investing in education and training, creating an enabling environment and improving the sector governance and strengthening the sector organization and supporting the infrastructure.

Impact of Geophysics in Small-Scale Mining

Geological exploration for new mining ventures involves drilling campaigns, an expensive activity that may take significant time, with no guarantee of financial success. The literature review indicated that the average cost of drilling may reach over US $100 per meter drilled, and that the use of Geophysics can reduce by 30% to 50% the number of negative drill holes (holes that does not intercept the mineral orebody), thus reducing time and cost of mineral exploration. This paper shows how the application of Geophysics in two small-scale mining operations, a limestone and manganese mine, resulted in reduced exploration time with satisfactory results for the companies. In the limestone mine, Geophysics allowed the updating of the geological model. In the manganese mine, it contributed to the generation of a preliminary geological model for the deposit. In both cases, there was a significant reduction of the time spent on exploration.

Sweat and Blood: Deific Interventions in Small-Scale Mining in Ghana

Small-scale mining in Ghana has been proclaimed as a net contributor to local economies in many scholarly works. Many writeups have lauded the significant contributions these miners have made or are making in terms of poverty alleviation. Quite significantly too, other commentaries have dwelt on the environmental degradation the miners effect on the communities within which they operate. Such activities have led to the destruction of forest areas, the creation of dangerous pits and diversion of rivers. Besides, the incessant use of mercury in the course of mining has also led to serious consequences for their host communities. This article, however, sets out to explore an aspect of small-scale mining operations which is yet to see much scholarly work, perhaps due to its surreptitious manner. It looks at the rituals that permeate the workings of these miners in order to tilt the tides of fortune in their favour and how such determination is leading them to the cauldron of spiritual elements in order to accomplish their objectives.

Environmental Health Impact of Potentially Harmful Element Discharges from Mining Operations in Nigeria

Widespread artisanal, alongside small-scale mining operations are currently increasing in intensity in Nigeria. These activities are causing immeasurable damage to the environment and populations that live in the vicinity of these mine fields. The discharges of Potentially Harmful Elements (PHEs) from the exposed mine-out /mineral processing sites and their subsequent remobilization into the soils, and natural water bodies constitute serious human health problems. A study aiming at understanding the extent by which these elements contaminate the soils at the vicinity of the mining operations was conducted. This study also sought to identify the possible effects on human health and how it can be best mitigated. Geochemical results suggest that the discharges of PHEs from the mining/mineral ore processing operations have contributed significantly to the enrichment of these elements in the surrounding environment, thereby contaminating drinking water sources, food crops, and are disposed to subsequent entry into the human body through the food chain. Many of the mining communities make their living from subsistence farming, growing food from the surroundings, and obtaining drinking water from nearby surface and sub-surface water resources. The direct or indirect exposure of the human population to PHEs constitutes a potential risk to human health if not monitored and abated. Reports of in-vitro bio-accessibility tests show that less than 50% of bio available heavy metal contaminants in ingested soil are bio accessible during digestion process. Thus, there is need for the reduction of bio-available PHE in the soil by ensuring that mining operations generally are done in a manner that will secure a quality of environment adequate for good health and well-being of the communities around.

Environmental radioactivity in the UK: the airborne geophysical view of dose rate estimates

This study considers UK airborne gamma-ray data obtained through a series of high spatial resolution, low altitude surveys over the past decade. The ground concentrations of the naturally occurring radionuclides Potassium, Thorium and Uranium are converted to air absorbed dose rates and these are used to assess terrestrial exposure levels from both natural and technologically enhanced sources. The high resolution airborne information is also assessed alongside existing knowledge from soil sampling and ground-based measurements of exposure levels. The surveys have sampled an extensive number of the UK lithological bedrock formations and the statistical information provides examples of low dose rate lithologies (the formations that characterise much of southern England) to the highest sustained values associated with granitic terrains. The maximum dose rates (e.g. >300 nGy h−1) encountered across the sampled granitic terrains are found to vary by a factor of 2. Excluding granitic terrains, the most spatially extensive dose rates (>50 nGy h−1) are found in association with the Mercia Mudstone Group (Triassic argillaceous mudstones) of eastern England. Geological associations between high dose rate and high radon values are also noted. Recent studies of the datasets have revealed the extent of source rock (i.e. bedrock) flux attenuation by soil moisture in conjunction with the density and porosity of the temperate latitude soils found in the UK. The presence or absence of soil cover (and associated presence or absence of attenuation) appears to account for a range of localised variations in the exposure levels encountered. The hypothesis is supported by a study of an extensive combined data set of dose rates obtained from soil sampling and by airborne geophysical survey. With no attenuation factors applied, except those intrinsic to the airborne estimates, a bias to high values of between 10 and 15 nGy h−1 is observed in the soil data. A wide range of technologically enhanced, localised contributions to dose rate values are also apparent in the data sets. Two detailed examples are provided that reveal the detectability of site-scale environmental impacts due to former industrial activities and the high dose values (>500 nGy h−1) that are associated with former, small-scale Uranium mining operations.

&lt;i&gt;Diamonds are forever:&lt;/i&gt;How myths can contribute to land degradation by small-scale diamond mining in Akwatia, Ghana

Conventional literature on land degradation has largely focused on factors such as logging, farming, mining and construction to explain the causes of this phenomenon, paying little attention to what motivates the decisions behind these factors particularly in poor countries. One of the factors that is least explored but promises to shed light on our understanding of and tackling land degradation is myth and how myths motivate decisions made on the exploitation of land resources that result in land degradation. Using qualitative approaches in the study of land degradation caused by small-scale mining operations in Akwatia, we found that the myth that diamonds regenerate and the soul of the dead bring forth diamonds largely contributes to re-mining of already mined sites and reclaimed pits leading to extensive land degradation. Scientific research into these myths and education of the small-scale miners are important in addressing land degradation. Key words: Small-scale Mining, Diamonds, Land degradation, Myths, Ghana