Small Multidrug Resistance Research Articles

Small Multidrug Resistance Protein EmrE Reduces Host pH and Osmotic Tolerance to Metabolic Quaternary Cation Osmoprotectants

The small multidrug resistance (SMR) transporter protein EmrE in Escherichia coli is known to confer resistance to toxic antiseptics classified as quaternary cation compounds (QCCs). Naturally derived QCCs synthesized during metabolic activities often act as osmoprotectants, such as betaine and choline, and participate in osmotic homoestasis. The goal of this study was to determine if EmrE proteins transport biological QCC-based osmoprotectants. Plasmid-encoded copies of E. coli emrE and the inactive variant emrE-E14C (emrE with the E → C change at position 14) were expressed in various E. coli strains grown in either rich or minimal media at various pHs (5 to 9) and under hypersaline (0.5 to 1.0 M NaCl and KCl) conditions to identify changes in growth phenotypes induced by osmoprotectant transport. The results demonstrated that emrE expression reduced pH tolerance of E. coli strains at or above neutral pH and when grown in hypersaline media at or above NaCl or KCl concentrations of 0.75 M. Hypersaline growth conditions were used to screen QCC osmoprotectants betaine, choline, l-carnitine, l-lysine, l-proline, and l-arginine. The study identified that betaine and choline are natural QCC substrates of EmrE.

Characterization of co-translationally formed nanodisc complexes with small multidrug transporters, proteorhodopsin and with the E. coli MraY translocase

Nanodiscs (NDs) enable the analysis of membrane proteins (MP) in natural lipid bilayer environments. In combination with cell-free (CF) expression, they could be used for the co-translational insertion of MPs into defined membranes. This new approach allows the characterization of MPs without detergent contact and it could help to identify effects of particular lipids on catalytic activities. Association of MPs with different ND types, quality of the resulting MP/ND complexes as well as optimization parameters are still poorly analyzed. This study describes procedures to systematically improve CF expression protocols for the production of high quality MP/ND complexes. In order to reveal target dependent variations, the co-translational ND complex formation with the bacterial proton pump proteorhodopsin (PR), with the small multidrug resistance transporters SugE and EmrE, as well as with the Escherichia coli MraY translocase was studied. Parameters which modulate the efficiency of MP/ND complex formation have been identified and in particular effects of different lipid compositions of the ND membranes have been analyzed. Recorded force distance pattern as well as characteristic photocycle dynamics indicated the integration of functionally folded PR into NDs. Efficient complex formation of the E. coli MraY translocase was dependent on the ND size and on the lipid composition of the ND membranes. Active MraY protein could only be obtained with ND containing anionic lipids, thus providing new details for the in vitro analysis of this pharmaceutically important protein.

Antiparallel Dimers of the Small Multidrug Resistance Protein EmrE Are More Stable Than Parallel Dimers

The bacterial multidrug transporter EmrE is a dual-topology membrane protein and as such is able to insert into the membrane in two opposite orientations. The functional form of EmrE is a homodimer; however, the relative orientation of the subunits in the dimer is under debate. Using EmrE variants with fixed, opposite orientations in the membrane, we now show that, although the proteins are able to form parallel dimers, an antiparallel organization of the subunits in the dimer is preferred. Blue-native PAGE analyses of intact oligomers and disulfide cross-linking demonstrate that in membranes, the proteins form parallel dimers only if no oppositely orientated partner is present. Co-expression of oppositely orientated proteins almost exclusively yields antiparallel dimers. Finally, parallel dimers can be disrupted and converted into antiparallel dimers by heating of detergent-solubilized protein. Importantly, in vivo function is correlated clearly to the presence of antiparallel dimers. Our results suggest that an antiparallel arrangement of the subunits in the dimer is more stable than a parallel organization and likely corresponds to the functional form of the protein.

Genetic basis of resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds - the qac genes and their role: a review

 Although the qac genes are named after one of their main substrates (i.e., quaternary ammonium compounds), these genes also code for resistance to a broad spectrum of other cationic compounds such as intercalating dyes, diamidines and biguanides. The various Qac proteins are involved in relatively low specific efflux-based multidrug pumps and belong to a family of small multidrug resistance proteins. Even though the practical significance of qac-mediated resistance lies mainly in resistance to antiseptics, contradictory findings on this issue are still reported. Therefore, the aim of this review is to summarise the current knowledge on qac-mediated resistance with special emphasis on resistance to antiseptics and its relevance for practice.  

Drug Efflux by a Small Multidrug Resistance Protein Is Inhibited by a Transmembrane Peptide

Drug-resistant bacteria use several families of membrane-embedded transporters to remove antibiotics from the cell. One such family is the small multidrug resistance proteins (SMRs) that, because of their relatively small size (ca. 110 residues with four transmembrane [TM] helices), must form (at least) dimers to efflux drugs. Here, we use a Lys-tagged synthetic peptide with exactly the same sequence as TM4 of the full-length SMR Hsmr from Halobacterium salinarum [TM4 sequence: AcA(Sar)(3)-VAGVVGLALIVAGVVVLNVAS-KKK (Sar = N-methylglycine)] to compete with and disrupt the native TM4-TM4 interactions believed to constitute the locus of Hsmr dimerization. Using a cellular efflux assay of the fluorescent SMR substrate ethidium bromide, we determined that bacterial cells containing Hsmr are able to remove cellular ethidium via first-order exponential decay with a rate constant (k) of 10.1 × 10(-3) ± 0.7 × 10(-3) s(-1). Upon treatment of the cells with the TM4 peptide, we observed a saturable ~60% decrease in the efflux rate constant to 3.7 × 10(-3) ± 0.2 × 10(-3) s(-1). In corresponding experiments with control peptides, including scrambled sequences and a sequence with d-chirality, a decrease in ethidium efflux either was not observed or was marginal, likely from nonspecific effects. The designed peptides did not evoke bacterial lysis, indicating that they act via the α-helicity and membrane insertion propensities of the native TM4 helix. Our overall results suggest that this approach could conceivably be used to design hydrophobic peptides for disruption of key TM-TM interactions of membrane proteins and represent a valuable route to the discovery of new therapeutics.

Efflux Pumps of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Play a Significant Role in Antituberculosis Activity of Potential Drug Candidates

Active efflux of drugs mediated by efflux pumps that confer drug resistance is one of the mechanisms developed by bacteria to counter the adverse effects of antibiotics and chemicals. To understand these efflux mechanisms in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, we generated knockout (KO) mutants of four efflux pumps of the pathogen belonging to different classes. We measured the MICs and kill values of two different compound classes on the wild type (WT) and the efflux pump (EP) KO mutants in the presence and absence of the efflux inhibitors verapamil and l-phenylalanyl-l-arginyl-β-naphthylamide (PAβN). Among the pumps studied, the efflux pumps belonging to the ABC (ATP-binding cassette) class, encoded by Rv1218c, and the SMR (small multidrug resistance) class, encoded by Rv3065, appear to play important roles in mediating the efflux of different chemical classes and antibiotics. Efflux pumps encoded by Rv0849 and Rv1258c also mediate the efflux of these compounds, but to a lesser extent. Increased killing is observed in WT M. tuberculosis cells by these compounds in the presence of either verapamil or PAβN. The efflux pump KO mutants were more susceptible to these compounds in the presence of efflux inhibitors. We have shown that these four efflux pumps of M. tuberculosis play a vital role in mediating efflux of different chemical scaffolds. Inhibitors of one or several of these efflux pumps could have a significant impact in the treatment of tuberculosis. The identification and characterization of Rv0849, a new efflux pump belonging to the MFS (major facilitator superfamily) class, are reported.

Spectroscopic analysis of small multidrug resistance protein EmrE in the presence of various quaternary cation compounds

Escherichia coli EmrE protein is the archetypical member of the small multidrug resistance protein family in bacteria and confers host resistance to a wide assortment of toxic quaternary cation compounds by secondary active efflux. This protein can form a variety of multimers under various membrane mimetic conditions, and the consensus of most biochemical and biophysical studies indicate that the active form is a dimer. The purpose of this study is to characterize the conformation of organically extracted detergent solubilized EmrE protein known to predominate as monomer yet demonstrates ligand binding ability. Active site EmrE-E14 replacements were also examined as functionally inactive controls for this study. EmrE was solubilized in detergents, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and dodecyl maltoside (DDM), and protein conformation was examined in the presence of four known quaternary cation compound (QCC) substrates, tetraphenyl phosphonium (TPP), methyl viologen, cetylpyridinium, and ethidium. SDS-Tricine PAGE analysis of both detergent solubilized proteins revealed that DDM-EmrE preparations enhanced the formation of dimer (and in some cases trimer) forms in the presence of all four QCC above 25 QCC:1 EmrE molar ratios. Examination of EmrE and its active site variant tertiary structures in DDM by circular dichroism spectropolarimetry, intrinsic Trp fluorescence quenching and second order derivative ultraviolet absorbance revealed that the variant fails to bind TPP but interacts with all other compounds. The results of this study show that monomeric detergent solubilized EmrE is capable of forming multimeric complexes that are enhanced by chemically diverse QCCs.

Direct Observation of Conformational Exchange in the Small Multidrug Resistance Transporter EmrE

Small multidrug resistance (SMR) transporters provide an ideal system to study the minimal requirements for active transport across a membrane. EmrE is an E. coli SMR transporter that exports a broad class of polyaromatic cation substrates, thus conferring resistance to drug compounds matching this chemical description. As a secondary active antiporter, EmrE drives the uphill export of each substrate molecule by coupling it to the downhill import of 2 protons across the inner membrane. EmrE is proposed to function via a single-site alternating access model.

Different Purification Approaches for the Integral Membrane Protein EmrE Leads to Biochemical and Biophysical Differences in the Protein

EmrE is an integral membrane protein in Escherichia coli belonging to a class of multidrug resistance transporters: the Small Multidrug Resistance transporter family (SMR). EmrE effluxes quaternary cationic compounds (QCC) using a proton motive force. Many groups studying this protein utilize a C-terminal myc-eptitope- 6 histidine tag engineered into EmrE for the purpose of protein purification in a detergent-containing aqueous environment. An alternative method for EmrE purification involves using a solvent mixture of chloroform:methanol:water to extract the protein from bacterial membranes. The EmrE isolated using the latter method does not have any tag. As there is different data appearing from different labs, the goal of this research is to compare the protein purified in with the different approaches analyzed under identical conditions. Untagged and tagged EmrE was analyzed and compared by fluorescence spectroscopy. Fluorescence emission spectra of untagged EmrE revealed a lower combined fluorescence intensity of the tyrosine and tryptophan fluorescence compared to tagged EmrE. A red edge excitation shift (REES) effect was also observed for tagged EmrE indicating that there is a population of fluorophores that have a slower rate of solvent relaxation, unlike the fluorophores in untagged EmrE. Functional analysis of the EmrE by QCC ligand-binding (Ethidium, methyl viologen, cetylpyridinium) was investigated using fluorescence quenching binding curves. Untagged EmrE and tagged EmrE binding curves with ethidium were similar, whereas binding of the methyl viologen and cetylpyridinium were different between untagged and tagged EmrE. These results show that the two purification approaches lead to differences in the structural and function states of this integral membrane protein.

Mechanistic Investigations into the Multi-Drug Resistance Transporter, EmrE

EmrE, an E. coli small multidrug resistance transporter, exports a broad range of toxic polyaromatic cations, thus imparting resistance to drug compounds of this type. According to the proposed single-site alternating access model of antiport, EmrE converts between inward- and outward-facing structures during the transport cycle, using the import of two protons across the inner membrane to drive the export of one substrate molecule. Interconversion between the inward- and outward-facing conformations must occur only in the substrate-bound state in order to achieve coupled antiport. Our research focuses on this coupling between substrate binding and conformational exchange.Conformational exchange between inward- and outward-facing states under substrate-bound conditions is the key step to efflux. We have directly monitored conformational exchange in tetraphenylphosphonium+-bound EmrE using ZZ-exchange NMR spectroscopy. This gives a rate constant of about 5 sec−1 for TPP+-bound EmrE converting from an inward- to outward-facing conformation or vice versa. Stopped-flow kinetics were employed to measure the ligand on/off rates. The inward- and outward-facing states are identical in this system. This facilitates analysis of all the microscopic steps in the transport cycle, and has significant implications for the energetics of the transport process.Research supported by Searle Scholars Program, NIH, and NSF GRFP to EAM.

Modulation of Substrate Efflux in Bacterial Small Multidrug Resistance Proteins by Mutations at the Dimer Interface

Modulation of Substrate Efflux in Bacterial Small Multidrug Resistance Proteins by Mutations at the Dimer Interface

Reconstitution of integral membrane proteins into isotropic bicelles with improved sample stability and expanded lipid composition profile

Reconstitution of integral membrane proteins into membrane mimetic environments suitable for biophysical and structural studies has long been a challenge. Isotropic bicelles promise the best of both worlds—keeping a membrane protein surrounded by a small patch of bilayer-forming lipids while remaining small enough to tumble isotropically and yield good solution NMR spectra. However, traditional methods for the reconstitution of membrane proteins into isotropic bicelles expose the proteins to potentially destabilizing environments. Reconstituting the protein into liposomes and then adding short-chain lipid to this mixture produces bicelle samples while minimizing protein exposure to unfavorable environments. The result is higher yield of protein reconstituted into bicelles and improved long-term stability, homogeneity, and sample-to-sample reproducibility. This suggests better preservation of protein structure during the reconstitution procedure and leads to decreased cost per sample, production of fewer samples, and reduction of the NMR time needed to collect a high quality spectrum. Furthermore, this approach enabled reconstitution of protein into isotropic bicelles with a wider range of lipid compositions. These results are demonstrated with the small multidrug resistance transporter EmrE, a protein known to be highly sensitive to its environment.

Antiparallel EmrE exports drugs by exchanging between asymmetric structures

Small multidrug resistance (SMR) transporters provide an ideal system to study the minimal requirements for active transport. EmrE is an E. coli SMR transporter that exports a broad class of polyaromatic cation substrates, thus conferring resistance to drug compounds matching this chemical description. However, a great deal of controversy has surrounded the topology of the EmrE homodimer. Here we show that asymmetric antiparallel EmrE exchanges between inward- and outward-facing states that are identical except that they have opposite orientation in the membrane. We quantitatively measure the global conformational exchange between these two states for substrate-bound EmrE in bicelles using solution NMR dynamics experiments. FRET reveals that the monomers within each dimer are antiparallel, and paramagnetic relaxation enhancement NMR experiments demonstrate differential water accessibility of the two monomers within each dimer. Our experiments reveal a “dynamic symmetry” that reconciles the asymmetric EmrE structure with the functional symmetry of residues in the active site.

Analyzing conformational changes in the transport cycle of EmrE

The small multidrug resistance transporters represent a unique model system for studying the mechanism of secondary active transport and membrane protein evolution. However, this seemingly simple protein has been highly controversial. Recent studies have provided experimental evidence that EmrE exists as an asymmetric dimer that exchanges between identical inward-facing and outward-facing states. Re-examination of the published literature in light of these findings fills in many details of the microscopic steps in the transport cycle. Future work will need to examine how the symmetry observed in vitro affects EmrE function in the asymmetric environment of its native Escherichia coli membrane.

Gluconacetobacter hansenii subsp. nov., a High-Yield Bacterial Cellulose Producing Strain Induced by High Hydrostatic Pressure

Strain M(438), deposited as CGMCC3917 and isolated from inoculums of bacterial cellulose (BC) producing strain screened in homemade vinegar and then induced by high hydrostatic pressure treatment (HHP), has strong ability to produce BC more than three times as that of its initial strain. It is the highest yield BC-producing strain ever reported. In this paper, M(438) was identidied as Gluconacetobacter hansenii subsp. nov. on the basis of the results obtained by examining it phylogenetically, phenotypically, and physiologically-biochemically. Furthermore, the genetic diversity of strain M(438) and its initial strain was examined by amplified fragment length polymorphism. The results indicated that strain M(438) was a deletion mutant induced by HHP, and the only deleted sequence showed 99% identity with 24,917-24,723 bp in the genome sequence of Ga. hansenii ATCC23769, and the complement gene sequence was at 24,699-25,019 bp with local tag GXY_15142, which codes small multidrug resistance (SMR) protein. It can be inferred that SMR might be related to inhibiting BC production to a certain extent.

Modulation of Substrate Efflux in Bacterial Small Multidrug Resistance Proteins by Mutations at the Dimer Interface

Bacteria evade the effects of cytotoxic compounds through the efflux activity of membrane-bound transporters such as the small multidrug resistance (SMR) proteins. Consisting typically of ca. 110 residues with four transmembrane (TM) α-helices, crystallographic studies have shown that TM helix 1 (TM1) through TM helix 3 (TM3) of each monomer create a substrate binding "pocket" within the membrane bilayer, while a TM4-TM4 interaction accounts for the primary dimer formation. Previous work from our lab has characterized a highly conserved small-residue heptad motif in the Halobacterium salinarum transporter Hsmr as (90)GLXLIXXGV(98) that lies along the TM4-TM4 dimer interface of SMR proteins as required for function. Focusing on conserved positions 91, 93, 94, and 98, we substituted the naturally occurring Hsmr residue for Ala, Phe, Ile, Leu, Met, and Val at each position in the Hsmr TM4-TM4 interface. Large-residue replacements were studied for their ability to dimerize on SDS-polyacrylamide gels, to bind the cytotoxic compound ethidium bromide, and to confer resistance by efflux. Although the relative activity of mutants did not correlate with dimer strength for all mutants, all functional mutants lay within 10% of dimerization relative to the wild type (WT), suggesting that the optimal dimer strength at TM4 is required for proper efflux. Furthermore, nonfunctional substitutions at the center of the dimerization interface that do not alter dimer strength suggest a dynamic TM4-TM4 "pivot point" that responds to the efflux requirements of different substrates. This functionally critical region represents a potential target for inhibiting the ability of bacteria to evade the effects of cytotoxic compounds.

Antibiotic and antiseptic resistance genes are linked on a novel mobile genetic element: Tn6087

ObjectivesTn916-like elements are one of the most common types of integrative and conjugative element (ICE). In this study we aimed to determine whether novel accessory genes, i.e. genes whose products are not involved in mobility or regulation, were present on a Tn916-like element (Tn6087) isolated from Streptococcus oralis from the human oral cavity.MethodsA minocycline-resistant isolate was analysed using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis on amplicons derived from Tn916 and DNA sequencing to determine whether there were genetic differences in Tn6087 compared with Tn916. Mutational analysis was used to determine whether the novel accessory gene found was responsible for an observed extra phenotype.ResultsA novel Tn916-like element, Tn6087, is described that encodes both antibiotic and antiseptic resistance. The antiseptic resistance protein is encoded by a novel small multidrug resistance gene, designated qrg, that was shown to encode resistance to cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), also known as cetrimide bromide.ConclusionsThis is the first Tn916-like element described that confers both antibiotic and antiseptic resistance, suggesting that selection of either antibiotic or antiseptic resistance will also select for the other and further highlights the need for prudent use of both types of compound.

Spectroscopic analysis of the intrinsic chromophores within small multidrug resistance protein SugE

Small multidrug resistance (SMR) protein family member, SugE, is an integral inner membrane protein that confers host resistance to antiseptic quaternary cation compounds (QCC). SugE studies generally focus on its resistance to limited substrates in comparison to SMR protein EmrE. This study examines the conformational characteristics of SugE protein in two detergents, sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) and dodecyl maltoside (DDM), commonly used to study SMR proteins. The influence of cetylpyridinium (CTP) and cetrimide (CET) using SugE aromatic residues (4W, 2Y, 1F) as intrinsic spectroscopic probes was also determined. Organically extracted detergent solubilized Escherichia coli SugE protein was examined by SDS-Tricine PAGE and various spectroscopic techniques. SDS-Tricine PAGE analysis of SugE in either detergent demonstrates the protein predominates as a monomer but also dimerizes in SDS. Far-UV region circular dichroism (CD) analysis determined that the overall α-helix content SugE in SDS and DDM was almost identical and unaltered by QCC. Near-UV region CD, fluorescence, and second-derivative ultraviolet absorption (SDUV) indicated that only DDM-SugE promoted hydrophobic environments for its Trp and Tyr residues that were perturbed by QCC addition. This study identified that only the tertiary structure of SugE protein in DDM is altered by QCC.

Efflux-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in Acinetobacter spp

Among Acinetobacter spp., A. baumannii is the most frequently implicated in nosocomial infections, in particular in intensive care units. It was initially thought that multidrug resistance (MDR) in this species was due mainly to horizontal acquisition of resistance genes. However, it has recently become obvious that increased expression of chromosomal genes for efflux systems plays a major role in MDR. Among the five superfamilies of pumps, resistance-nodulation-division (RND) systems are the most prevalent in multiply resistant A. baumannii. RND pumps typically exhibit a wide substrate range that can include antibiotics, dyes, biocides, detergents, and antiseptics. Overexpression of AdeABC, secondary to mutations in the adeRS genes encoding a two-component regulatory system, constitutes a major mechanism of multiresistance in A. baumannii. AdeIJK, intrinsic to this species, is responsible for natural resistance, but since overexpression above a certain threshold is toxic for the host, its contribution to acquired resistance is minimal. The recently described AdeFGH, probably regulated by a LysR-type transcriptional regulator, also confers multidrug resistance when overexpressed. Non-RND efflux systems, such as CraA, AmvA, AbeM, and AbeS, have also been characterized for A. baumannii, as have AdeXYZ and AdeDE for other Acinetobacter spp. Finally, acquired narrow-spectrum efflux pumps, such as the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) members TetA, TetB, CmlA, and FloR and the small multidrug resistance (SMR) member QacE in Acinetobacter spp., have been detected and are mainly encoded by mobile genetic elements.

Involvement, and dissemination, of the enterococcal small multidrug resistance transporter QacZ in resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds

To investigate the role of a putative small multidrug resistance transporter, annotated in Enterococcus faecalis V583 genome as EFA0010 (we will refer to this gene as qacZ), in decreased susceptibility to biocides. A derivative strain of V583, susceptible to erythromycin (V583ErmS), was complemented with pORI23 carrying the qacZ gene (strain EF-SAVE1). MICs of benzalkonium chloride, chlorhexidine and ethidium bromide were determined for the complemented strain and wild-type. RT-PCR and ethidium bromide efflux assays were performed in order to fully understand the role and specificity of the qacZ gene. The presence of qacZ in 73 enterococcal strains from different origins was investigated by PCR, and MICs of benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine were determined for the same strains. The complemented strain, EF-SAVE1, presented a higher MIC of benzalkonium chloride (8 mg/L) than V583ErmS (4 mg/L); the MICs of chlorhexidine and ethidium bromide were the same for both strains, 4 mg/L and 16 mg/L, respectively. Expression of qacZ was found to be higher in EF-SAVE1 and constitutive, i.e. not inducible by any of the three tested biocides. Overexpression of qacZ was not responsible for changes in ethidium bromide efflux. This gene was present in 52% of the enterococcal isolates studied and the MICs of benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine ranged between 2 and 8 mg/L. We demonstrate the involvement of the qacZ gene in tolerance to the quaternary ammonium compound benzalkonium chloride, but not ethidium bromide. This work constitutes the first report of a biocide resistance mechanism in E. faecalis, and reveals its dissemination amongst the genus Enterococcus.