Small Island Countries Research Articles

Resource extractivism, health and climate change in small islands

PurposeThe extraction of natural resources has long been part of economic development in small islands. The damage to environment and health is extensive, even rendering once productive islands virtually uninhabitable. Rather than providing long-term benefits to the population or to the environment, the culture of “extractivism” – a nonreciprocal approach where resources are removed and used with little care or regard to consequences – has instead left many in far more fragile circumstances, increasingly dependent on external income. The purpose of this paper is to show how continued extractivism in small islands is contributing to global climate change and increasing climate risks to the local communities.Design/methodology/approachThrough a series of case studies, this paper examines the history of extractivism in small islands in Oceania, its contribution to environmental degradation locally and its impacts on health.FindingsIt examines how extractivism continues today, with local impacts on environment, health and wellbeing and its much more far-reaching consequences for global climate change and human health. At the same time, these island countries have heightened sensitivity to climate change due to their isolation, poverty and already variable climate, whereas the damage to natural resources, the disruption, economic dependence and adverse health impacts caused by extractivism impart reduced resilience to the new climate hazards in those communities.Practical implicationsThis paper proposes alternatives to resource extractivism with options for climate compatible development in small islands that are health-promoting and build community resilience in the face of increasing threats from climate change.Originality/valueExtractivism is a new concept that has not previously been applied to understanding health implications of resource exploitation thorough the conduit of climate change. Small-island countries are simultaneously exposed to widespread extractivism, including of materials contributing to global climate change, and are among the most vulnerable to the hazards that climate change brings.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE LEGAL TREATMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES

The intensification of extreme weather events caused by climate changes has contributed to the massive displacement of people in the most vulnerable regions, causing an unprecedented migratory flow. Given this situation, and given the low capacity of resilience of the population and of the States that suffer such natural consequences, particularly in developing countries and small island countries, there is a growing concern about the lack of legal protection to such individuals. Therefore, because of the lack of adequate international protection for environmental refugees and an alarming regulatory gap, it is necessary to adopt urgent measures for the protection, mitigation and adaptation to minimize the impacts caused by climate change and protect the most vulnerable populations, forced to leave their States in search of better living conditions. In the present bibliographical and documentary research, the deductive method was used.

The impact on food security and future adaptation under climate variation: a case study of Taiwan’s agriculture and fisheries

According to Food and Agriculture Organization and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports, climate change will lead to a severe food-supply problem. In the future, food production will continually decrease because of aggravated effects of climate change, causing food production to continually decrease. Food production will be unable to satisfy the demand of the global population, leading to a food-security crisis. As the world population continues to increase, the shortage of food will become increasingly severe, particularly for those located in “climate impact hotspots” of tropical, subtropical, small-island countries, and countries that are dependent on imports to meet domestic demand such as Taiwan. Numerous Taiwanese studies have suggested that agricultural and fishery productivity has declined because of climate variation, which may cause changes and instability in food quantity and quality, and increase deficiency and uncertainty in the food supply. Therefore, to discuss the risks posed by climate change to the stability of food supply and demand, this paper, taking Taiwan as a case, explored the impact of climate variation on food security and future adaptation strategies. TaiCCAT’s supportive system for decision-making (TSSDA) was adopted here to assess and analyze the current situations of agricultural and fisheries production and supply, as well as future food supply risks, in addition to evaluating the deficiencies in the existing climate adaptation strategies in order to plan and revise feasible future adaptation alternatives. Based on the rule of risk management, the adaptation strategies recommended in this study were differentiated into two categories: proactive adaptation and planned adaptation. Proactive adaptation is emphasized to counter the uncertainty of food production, which increases the difficulty of production and necessity to import food. Conversely, planned adaptation can be used to manage the uncertainty of food supply to implement adjustments in production and marketing, as well as to mitigate the impact of climate variation.

On Pre-training for Climate Change Induced Migration from the Pacific: Lessons from the Marshall Islands

This study aims to suggest another view of the so-called “climate refugee”, especially those from the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Pacific Ocean. Although many studies have been conducted on the legal aspects of the climate refugees’ situations, little has been studied about how they succeed in re-establishing their livelihoods after relocation. Unlike migrations forced by other causes, the future migrations induced by sea level rise have a long lead time which gives the people involved the opportunity to develop the skills necessary to adjust to their new lives. This paper examines whether “pre-training” opportunities are sufficient in those countries from which climate refugees are most likely to come. The author focuses on the Republic of the Marshall Islands, one of the small island countries in the Pacific being threatened by environmental changes such as rising sea level, high tides, and drought. Due to a unique situation allowing the Marshallese people to move to the United States without a visa, many people do so each year under the free association partnership. However, some of these migrants fail to adjust to the United States and come back to their home islands, possibly due to a lack of skills. Given that more climate refugees are likely in the future, pre-training that provides essential skills to benefit future climate refugees is necessary. Through key informant interviews in the Marshall Islands, it seems that such training opportunities are currently limited, but have great potential to flourish.

The state of midwifery in small island Pacific nations.

Strengthening midwifery is a global priority. Recently, global evidence has provided momentum toward developing the midwifery workforce. In 2014, the State of the World's Midwifery 2014 Report explored midwifery services in 73 low to middle income countries. In the South Pacific region, only Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands were included. This means that there is little known on the state of midwifery in the small island countries in the South Pacific. To explore the current situation of the education, regulation and association of midwives in 12 small island nations of the South Pacific and determine the gaps in these areas. A descriptive study was undertaken. Data were collected through a survey completed by key representatives (usually the Chief Nursing and Midwifery Officer) from each of the 12 countries. Ethical approval was received from the relevant Human Research Ethics Committee. Many of the countries had few midwives, in some instances, only two midwives for the whole country. Midwifery education programs included post-graduate diploma, certificates and bachelor degrees. Midwives were required to be registered nurses in all countries. Regulation and licensing also varied - most countries did not have a separate licensing system for midwives. Only three countries have a specific professional association for midwives. The variation and the small number of midwives poses challenges for workforce planning. Consideration could be given to developing regional standards and potentially a shared curriculum framework. Ongoing collaboration and networking between countries is a critical part of future developments.

Patterns of Fertility Decline and the Impact of Alternative Scenarios of Future Fertility Change in sub‐Saharan Africa

Our aim in this chapter is to provide an updated and concise description of the diversity of fertility decline patterns among countries1 in sub- Saharan Africa drawing on the latest series of fertility estimates that take into account many different data sources and that are harmonized with other demographic components (United Nations 2015d). We focus on the level of fertility prior to the start of fertility decline the time period of the fertility transition and the estimated pace of decline. We also explore the implications of different fertility decline patterns for future fertility and population projections in the region. We draw on the distinct patterns of fertility decline among countries worldwide that are advanced in (or have completed) their first fertility transition to construct probabilistic fertility and population projections for sub-Saharan African countries. The illustrative comparisons of projections highlight the demographic impact if future fertility decline in sub-Saharan countries were to accelerate and follow the rapid pace of decline already experienced by a diverse group of countries. (excerpt)

Integrating Clean Energy in Small Island Power Systems: Maldives Experience

Abstract Providing affordable, reliable clean electricity supplies is a major challenge small island nations face due to factors such as dispersed nature of their population in small individual islands, heavy dependence on imported fossil fuels for power generation and absence of economy of scale. The paper discusses the design of hybrid diesel-solar photovoltaic systems with energy storage with a sample involving five islands in Maldives. The study has shown that implementation of diesel-solar PV hybrid power generation systems with storage in small island countries increase energy security and they are economically and environmentally attractive.

Lest We Forget: Medical Care and Anesthesia during the Second World War in the Pacific. The Interaction and Cooperation Between New Zealand, Australian and American Armed Forces

Soldiers from New Zealand, Australia and the United States fought alongside the people living in the South Pacific under desperate conditions to save and protect their countries. Fighting in the Pacific Islands was a new experience. There were mountains, jungles, tropical heat and diseases to combat as well as the enemy. Traditional medical treatment and anesthesia had to be modified for the conditions. Ether evaporated in the heat, and patients were often dehydrated and weakened by poor diet and tropical disease. Thiopental, a new intravenous anesthetic, was widely used. The technique of freeze-drying plasma and the invention of penicillin helped save lives, but the casualty rate was horrendous. Hospitals built by the US army are still functioning in many small Pacific Island countries, and the experience of working alongside military doctors gave the local medical officers the knowledge to develop efficient surgical and anesthetic services after the fighting was over.

Mitigating uncertainty and enhancing resilience to climate change in the fisheries sector in Taiwan: Policy implications for food security

The human population is projected to grow to more than 9 billion by 2050. New farming and fishing techniques are continually being developed. However, food production remains restricted by the finiteness of natural resources and the rapid increase in the global population. In the future, food production may decline because of the aggravated effects of climate change. Food production will be unable to satisfy the demands of the global population, leading to a food security crisis. As the world population continues to increase, food shortages will become increasingly severe, particularly for regions located in “climate impact hot spots” in tropical and subtropical zones and for small-island countries such as Taiwan. In the present study, supply and demand are analysed to examine the risks and uncertainties associated with the impact of climate change on the domestic and imported seafood supply. First, we conduct a literature review to identify the climate risk for sea food security, and then, we analyse the domestic production of both the marine fishing catch and aquaculture. This study also examines the critical problems of the imported seafood supply and applies a comparative analysis of impact type and differences in the top 10 seafood import countries to organize adaptation strategies to climate change. Moreover, due to the type of climate impact and the differences between long-term climate impact and extreme climate impact, we collect and compile the existing climate adaptation strategies of fishery production, seafood importing, and the demand and supply of seafood in Taiwan. Finally, we perform a comparative analysis to seek any deficiencies in the existing climate adaptation strategies and offer new adaptation guidelines based on the existing climate adaptation strategies. The results show that Taiwan’s major adaptation strategies have been precautionary mitigation measures. In terms of resilience management, only the buffer stock scheme plan and the stabilization funds method are selected for some specific species to mitigate the short-term fluctuation in both yield and price for imported domestic seafood. However, we will confront uncertainties stemming from global climate change in the future; the existing climate adaptation strategies of Taiwan are still not sufficient to respond to climate impacts. For example, the climate change early warning system is still very inadequate, the existing scientific knowledge is insufficient, and the current adaptation strategies are insufficient for resolving the fluctuations in the market mechanism of seafood. According to the principles of risk management, the adaptation strategies recommended in this study can be differentiated into two categories: precautionary mitigation measures can be used to adapt to domestic production and uncertainties; such measures include avoidance, transfer, and reduction to prevent the frequency and consequences of climate change for building a resilient fisheries sector. Moreover, resilience management (e.g., risk retention) can be used to respond to uncertainties in supply for adjusting production and mitigating the risks of climate change.

Addressing WaSH challenges in Pacific Island Countries: A participatory marketing systems mapping approach to empower informal settlement community action

Addressing complex and challenging issues entails access to credible systems information in the form of systems maps or diagrams. The purpose of our paper is to describe a participatory action research (PAR) systems mapping activity that was undertaken by an urban informal settlement community in a small Pacific Island Country. A total of 19 households participated in a systems mapping activity to map a household-level water or sanitation system. The individual household systems maps and related data were then used to construct a de-identified aggregated water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) marketing systems map (and accompanying narratives) for the informal settlement. We present the marketing systems map, which delineated a series of marketing exchanges, and report on how the map assisted the community to address a number of expressed needs. We conclude by suggesting that systems mapping is a valuable activity that communities could undertake to generate credible systems information to inform and empower collective planning and actions.

Economics of tourism & growth for small island countries

We theoretically analyze the impact of changes in foreign income from tourism source countries on the growth of tourism dependent small island economies. Using a general theoretical construct, we attempt to answer the question of how price elasticity of demand, income elasticity of tourist and the degree of competition in the service sector influence the economic development of small economies. One of the main results is that politicians may consider applying policies which lead to a competitive environment in the service sector to maximize growth and the consequent labor income share.

‘On the ship, you can do anything’: the impact of international cruiseship employment for i-Kiribati women

Kiribati is a remote, small island country with a long history of male temporary migration as a mechanism for relieving unemployment and facilitating remittances. This article looks at a unique case study of female i-Kiribati migration and is based on interviews with a small sample of i-Kiribati women who worked on international cruiseships between 2009-2012, thus providing interesting insight into first-time migration experiences of women from a remote island country. The findings suggest that while the experience did not generally lead to observable changes in their ability to manage remittances, nor in gender relations between husband and wife, employment on the ship did nonetheless have strong reported benefits in terms of independence, skills development and confidence of the women interviewed. These findings corroborate existing literature showing while entrenched gender norms rarely shift directly due to women’s migration experiences, migration does contribute to the women’s empowerment through increased agency and ability to make decisions, both during and after their migration.

Effect of climate warming on maize production in Timor-Leste: interaction with nitrogen supply

Climate change is predicted to decrease crop yields in semi-arid and subtropical regions of the world and this could negatively affect smallholder farmers in the developing world. Previous analysis has suggested that with low fertiliser input, yields of sorghum increased as temperatures increased. We used the wide range of tropical environments in the small mountainous island country of Timor-Leste to evaluate the impact of global warming on maize (Zea mays) yields with (i) no fertiliser input and (ii) increased nitrogen (N) supply. We calibrated the well-tested APSIM-Maize model for the cultivar of maize grown throughout Timor-Leste. We simulated maize yields at four locations with 8 years of reliable weather records, at present temperatures, +1.5°C and +3.0°C, with 0, 40 and 80 kg/ha of added N, with 1.2, 1.9 and 3.8% soil organic carbon (SOC), and with increased duration of the vegetative phase. With no added N, higher temperatures increased yields at the cooler, higher elevation sites and decreased yields at the warmest site near the coast. With fertiliser application, warming temperatures decreased yields or induced no change in simulated yield at all locations. Simulations with three levels of N supply for the four sites, which differed in temperature, showed a strong temperature × N supply interaction on yield. At maximum growing-season temperatures >31°C, yields decreased with increasing temperature at all levels of fertilisation. At maximum growing-season temperatures of 23−31°C, yields increased with increasing temperature with no added fertiliser, were unchanged with the application of 40 kg N/ha, and decreased with increasing temperatures with application of 80 kg/ha N. The changes in yield with temperature and N supply were associated with N uptake by the maize, which showed the same interaction with maximum temperature and N added. SOC acted as a source of N, so that changes in yield induced by temperature and N were similar whether the N was from an organic or an inorganic source. Increasing the duration of the vegetative phase resulted in lower or no change in yields at all sites. We conclude that global warming will increase the yield for low-input smallholder farmers growing maize at maximum growing-season temperatures <31°C, but that micro-dosing with N will increase yields at all locations with mean maximum temperatures of 20−35°C.

Primary Health Care: Expectations and Tasks for Public Health in Trinidad and Tobago

The government of Trinidad and Tobago considers that the enjoyment of the highest attainable level of health is a basic right of every citizen and has a goal to achieve health for all by 2020. Thus it lays emphasis on caring and assures standards of excellence to promote, protect and improve the health status of the people of Trinidad and Tobago. To achieve these goals it is very important to increase curative services as well as preventive services in the country. In view of this situation there is a need to overcome the challenges the public health by involving community and individuals and self-reliance to achieve Health for all at 2020. Community participation is one of the domains of community capacity building in a small island country. It is one of the mechanisms to empower people to take part in community development. In this paper, the nature, the dimensions of community participation, and its role and scope in implementation of different components of primary health care have been described. The health services in public and remedial care have been discussed. The article highlights some important milestone achievements in the health sectorin Trinidad.

A 'Healthy Islands' framework for climate change in the Pacific.

Small Pacific Island countries (PICs) are among the most vulnerable countries in the world to the anticipated detrimental health effects of climate change. The assessment of health vulnerabilities and planning adaptation strategies to minimize the impacts of climate change on health tests traditional health governance structures and depends on strong linkages and partnerships between actors involved in these vital processes. This article reviews the actors, processes and contexts of the climate change and health vulnerability assessment and adaptation planning project carried out by the World Health Organization and health sector partners in three island countries in the Micronesian region of the Pacific throughout 2010 and 2011: Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Palau. Despite their shared history and cultural characteristics, the findings and implications of this article are considered to have substantial relevance and potential application to other PICs. The modified 'Healthy Islands' framework for climate change and health adaptation presented in this article draws upon real-world experience and governance theory from both the health and climate change literature and, for the first time, places health systems adaptation within the vision for 'Healthy Islands' in the Pacific region.

The Small Island that Could: The Private Sector as a Source of Mauritiuss High Regulatory Quality

In the past few years economic research has empirically established the link between “good” regulation and development and there is a broad consensus over the fact that regulatory quality matters for economic growth. Up to now, however, there has not been much research on the determinants of regulation. This link is difficult to establish empirically due to methodological and data issues, but I find some evidence that the private sector, especially foreign investment, plays a significant role in regulatory making. To further elaborate this idea I look at the small island country of Mauritius that has exceptional regulatory quality. The main findings indeed point to a prominent role of the private sector and its collaboration with the government. The case study also shows that the determinants of good regulation are not limited to only one factor, but a wide array of influences and circumstances that make Mauritius the best regulated country in Africa and also put it among the best regulated countries in the world.

The right place. Solid waste management in the Republic of Maldives: between infrastructural measures and local practices

Abstract The 2010 UNPD’s Assessment of Development Results defined the Maldives “a vulnerable Small Island Developing State” by pointing out the influence of both external and local human factors on their fragile ecosystems. This impact is deeply related to a main geographical feature: the high dispersion of land mass and population, both of them spread over a distance of 860 km. Above all, this dispersion has an effect on two environmental issues: energy distribution and solid waste management. The latter is particularly interesting for the geographical analysis of Small Island Countries. Due to centre-periphery distance and cost benefits analysis, in the Maldives public and private actors have developed different solid waste management models: central and regional waste management dumpsites, hybrid systems implemented by resorts and “informal” practices still followed by local communities. In this paper, we discuss these systems stressing on the relevance of combining infrastructural measures with “informal” practices at local level. Furthermore, we report the outcomes of The Right Place, a participatory waste management action carried out by MaRHE Center (a Milano- Bicocca Research Center) in Faafu Magoodhoo Island.

Economic Growth and Environment: Tourism as a Trigger for Green Growth

The paper analyses the implications of tourism activities for economic growth and environmental assets, focusing especially on small island countries. The author develops a stylized dynamic economic model in which tourism is the trigger of the incentive mechanism leading to abatement activities and economic growth. The basic idea is that tourists choose the location to visit according to a number of factors (including environmental quality) which are affected by residents' choices. If residents engage in environmental protection activities, it then may be possible for environmentally based tourism economies to reach a smooth development process. The author shows that the (sustainable) balanced growth path is the only viable equilibrium, and along such a path consumption grows while environmental quality rises. Tourists' preferences crucially affect the long-run outcome, since economic and environmental growth rates increase with the green preference and decrease with the grey preference and crowding aversion parameters. Thus, if tourism specialization is to be the pathway to development, green tourism will need to be promoted.

MAKROEKONOMİK KIRILGANLIK: TÜRKİYE VE ŞANGAY BEŞLİSİ KARŞILAŞTIRMASI

Macroeconomic vulnerability which is one of the different vulnerability categories states the risk of being fregile to the unpredictable domestic and foreign economic events. So, it is absolutely different from other vulnerability categories. At first, vulnerability concept was used to define the structural vulnerabilities of the small island countries. But then, because of an increase in financial crisis and global macroeconomic instability, vulnerability has become popular. In this context, a lot of indexes has been created and used. The indexes created recently has emphasized that Turkey is among the most vulnerable countries. This situation encouraged us to understand Turkey’s vulnerability position and compare it with Shanghai Five countries. By the result, Turkey is vulnerable about current account deficit and domestic credit growth. The purpose of this paper is to compare the vulnerabilities of Turkey and Shanghai Five and develop a policy for Turkey.

Outside looking in: non-accession to the WTO

Since its institutional birth in 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) / World Trade Organization (WTO) has mushroomed from 23 original contracting parties to 157 members as of September 2012. Another 28 countries are currently observers, each at varying stages of the accession process. WTO members and observers cover some 99 per cent of the world's population and over 99 per cent of global trade. However, there are still 13 states outside the multilateral rules-based trading system. This paper argues that existing explanations of membership and accession do not fully explain why these states remain outside the WTO, with implications for membership in international institutions generally. The paper tests hypotheses of non-membership based on a lack of willingness (domestic support), ability (technical capacity) or external pressure, and augments these statistical findings with a comparative country-level narrative of WTO (non-)accession decision-making in two small island countries.