Smallholder Households Research Articles

The Making of a Periphery: How Island Southeast Asia Became a Mass Exporter of Labor

The Making of a Periphery: How Island Southeast Asia Became a Mass Exporter of Labor

Some like it hot: household disagreement and productivity in smallholder chilli production in Indonesia

Women’s leadership of smallholder households is a major component of women’s empowerment. Approaches to understanding women’s empowerment in South East Asian countries require a nuanced approach due to the lack of independently managed plots by male and female spouses. We present an approach which allows detailed insights into women’s leadership of activities and the extent to which male and female spouses disagree about leadership. Using a combination of confirmatory factor analysis and a revenue function regression we show that female leadership and disagreement are both significant factors affecting household revenues from chili farming in rural Indonesia. In particular, disagreements can diminish chilli revenues and act to reverse gains from female leadership. Our results indicate women’s empowerment in these regions is strongly affected by the extent to which households can agree on the importance of women’s leadership. Results indicate a need to consider interventions that support building communication between the spouses and that reinforces the importance of acknowledging womens’ roles as leaders in decision making in the household.

The diversity of birds in the young oil palm agroforestry plot in Jambi, Indonesia

By 2010, Sumatera Island of Indonesia had lost the highest annual forest cover due to oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) expansion, leading to adverse environmental impacts. The introduction of oil palm agroforestry (OPAF) within the social forestry program was to reduce these environmental impacts, conserve biodiversity, enhance wildlife habitat, and improve smallholder household resilience. However, the information on OPAF implementation progress and its benefits and ecological impacts still need to be explored. This research aims to measure the diversity of birds in young OPAF by comparing birds’ diversity in four land covers: young oil palm agroforestry (three years after establishment), old oil palm agroforestry (20 years after establishment), oil palm monoculture, and secondary forest. We indicated 43 bird species from 25 families across all land covers. The secondary forest had the highest valueof bird diversity index value of 2.80. The second was the first young oil palm agroforestry (2.42), followed by old OPAF, oil palm monoculture, and the second young OPAF with index values of 2.30, 2.19, and 2.16, respectively. Enrichment planting on oil palm monoculture through OPAF development could help restore tropical forests’ structural complexity while also providing more suitable bird habitats.

Determinants of Farmers' Participation in the Agricultural Sector Support Project for the Adoption of Improved Technology in Traditional Poultry Farming: Evidence from Rural Togo

The adoption of improved technologies in agriculture has been shown to improve incomes, reduce poverty and contribute to rural development in many developing nations. In Togo, the Agricultural Sector Support Project (PASA) assists smallholder farmers in the adoption of the Improved Technology in Traditional Poultry Farming (ITTPF) in rural areas as a means of increasing smallholder incomes, enhancing food security and reducing poverty. However, the adoption rate is currently below expectations, especially given the promise it holds not only from an economic perspective but also from a broad environmental sustainability viewpoint since poultry manure can be used as a necessary input in smallholder farms. In this study, we examine the factors associated with the participation of farmers in PASA for the adoption of ITTPF in Togo. Our analysis covers 400 smallholder households in the 23 districts of Togo and employs Logit model with Probit model as robustness check. We find different socio-economic constraints and enablers of participation in PASA. Particularly, level of education, household size, membership in cooperative societies, hatching rate of eggs, farm size, average annual sale of poultry and self-financing capacity were positively and significantly related to the participation of farmers in PASA. The findings are robust to alternative specifications such as Probit model. Based on the findings, we argue that participation in agricultural innovation and development programs depends on the information accessible to farmers. One medium to improve information access could be agricultural cooperatives and extension services since they provide informal education, training, and access to productive inputs for farming and marketing purposes. Our findings suggest the need for agricultural policies which promote farmer organizations such as agricultural cooperatives coupled with effective extension services to enable the adoption of improved agricultural technologies.

Smallholder cashew production and household livelihoods in the transition zone of Ghana

AbstractAlthough the adoption of cash crops among smallholder farmers is meant to increase the commercialisation and profitability of agriculture, it is still unclear if cashew farmers are better off or worst off from cashew farming in Sub‐Saharan Africa. The study investigated the overall effects of cashew production on household livelihoods among smallholder farmers in the Transitional Zone of Ghana. The study employed a mixed research methods design for data collection and analysis. These methods included focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs), and a survey of 239 cashew‐farming households. The results revealed both positive and negative outcomes for farmers and their households. First, the positive outcomes included increased income, enhanced social status, improved food and nutrition, housing and education. Second, the negative outcomes included increased theft, high cost of goods and services, high cost of living, and a rise in physical health problems among farmers. The study concludes that, overall, cashew farmers and their households experienced improved livelihoods despite the negative effects arising from cashew farming. To maximise the livelihood outcomes of smallholder cashew farmers, we underscore the importance of a multi‐stakeholder approach to development planning that promotes innovations in training, extension support, and sound financial and business management.

Identifying nutrition-sensitive development options in Madagascar through a positive deviance approach

Context-adapted interventions are needed to alleviate the burden of food and nutrition insecurity on resource-poor rural households in southeastern Madagascar. The Positive Deviance approach implies identifying locally viable development solutions by focusing on particularly successful, innovative individuals. To identify promising practices that could be promoted as part of food and nutrition security (FNS) interventions in the Atsimo Atsinanana region of southeastern Madagascar, positive deviance was searched among smallholder farmers. Positive deviants are defined as households with overall optimal performance across four aspects of FNS: household-level food security, women’s diet quality, child’s diet quality, and low diarrhea incidence. To identify positive deviants, a two-step procedure was followed. Based on quantitative survey data from 413 rural smallholder households (mother-child pairs) with a child aged between 6 and 23 months, each household’s four performance scores were adjusted by removing the average effects of household resources. Then, households with Pareto-optimal performance were identified regarding the four aspects. Subsequently, 16 positive deviants were revisited and positive deviant practices were identified through in-depth interviews. A set of practices were validated through focus group discussions with local nutrition and agriculture experts. Positive deviant practices include the adoption of agricultural innovation, such as new cash crops, as well as nutrition-sensitive market behaviors and reliance on off-farm activities. In addition, some ethno-cultural factors help to explain positive deviance. These diverse positive deviant practices may serve as examples and inspiration for locally grounded development interventions targeting FNS in southeastern Madagascar.

Do subsidies on seed and fertilizer lead to child labour? Evidence from Malawi

SummaryMotivationSub‐Saharan African governments have subsidized farm inputs—fertilizer and seed especially—to increase food production by small‐scale farmers to improve food security. A potential drawback of such schemes is that they may encourage farmers to put their children to work in the fields, harming their education.PurposeDid the Malawi Farm Input Subsidy Programme that began in 2005/2006 increase child labour on the holdings of beneficiary smallholders?Methods and approachThe article analyses data from the Malawi Integrated Household Panel Survey to examine the effect of seed and fertilizer subsidies on child labour. The study employs a correlated‐random‐effects‐control function regression, using district coupon allocation as an instrumental variable for coupons received by households.FindingsThere was statistically significant evidence that the Farm Input Subsidy Programme (FISP) increased child labour. The effect, however, was relatively small. At the sample mean, it was estimated that the programme led to a 12 percentage point increase in the likelihood that children would work on the farm and that the children would work an additional 72 minutes a week on the fields. The FISP, however, did not affect the enrolment of children in school.Effects varied socially: children in male‐headed, uneducated, and smallholder households were the most affected.Policy implicationsAlthough the observed effects are not large, they are unwelcome. Two policy corrections could eliminate them. One, the award of subsidy coupons could be made conditional on children's school performance. Two, given that the effects barely applied in households where parents had been to school, agricultural training should stress the importance of children attending school and not working in the fields.

Determinants of uptake of biofortified crop varieties by smallholder farmers in Uganda

Hunger and malnutrition can be said to be one of the important global problems that have recently been exacerbated by climate change and environmental degradation. Meanwhile, an estimated two billion people suffer from micronutrient malnutrition, mostly due to low intake of vitamins and minerals such as iron and zinc. Biofortification, an agricultural technology that can increase the micronutrient content of staples, may confer large benefits to rural families and poor children with limited access to expensive high-quality foods. Possible pathways include own-consumption when directly consumed, the income pathway when they are sold and/or the food price pathway when they increase the availability of micronutrient-rich foods in the market place. This research aims to understand the factors associated with the uptake of biofortified crop varieties (BCV) among smallholder farmers in Uganda and derive policy information to support their accelerated uptake. The analysis used two waves of panel data consisting of 6,400 observations collected from 6 districts in Uganda as part of the Feed the Future (FtF) innovation laboratory for nutrition. Descriptive analysis was used to help discern the differences between adopters and non-adopters of BCV. Double hurdle regression analysis was used to understand the factors associated with adoption and the intensity of adoption of biofortified crop varieties. Descriptive results reveal significant differences between adopters and non-adopters of BCV. Double hurdle regression analysis results indicate that the primary determinants of uptake of biofortified crop varieties include geographical location, extension staff visits, household size, and mobile phone ownership. Other important factors associated with the adoption of BCV include the amount of land owned by the household. Results suggest that extension staff visits, and mobile phone ownership were important sources of information for rural households that appear to drive the decision to adopt biofortified crop varieties. Meanwhile, household size, regional location of the household and total land owned were important motivators in adopting BCV technology. From the present analysis, it was not possible to clearly discern the key drivers of the intensity of adoption of biofortified crop varieties among smallholder households in Uganda. Key words: Biofortification, smallholder farmers, quasi experimental design, double-hurdle regression, Uganda

Market Outlet Choice and Its Effects on the Welfare of Smallholder Vegetable and Fruit Producers in Ethiopia

The decision to choose an appropriate market outlet may involve a self-selection problem. This suggests that unobservable characteristics play an important role, and the examination of the impact of market outlet choice on smallholder household welfare needs to correct this selection bias. Consequently, this study, by using a multinomial endogenous treatment model, examined the determinants of market outlet choices and their subsequent effects on the welfare of smallholder vegetable and fruit producers in Ethiopia. The results on the determinants of market outlet choices obtained using this model indicated that distance to main roads, livestock ownership, access to extension, and cooperative membership influenced the decisions of smallholder farmers in one way or another. Furthermore, the model results obtained by correcting the selectivity indicated that, relative to formal markets, informal markets have a low impact on the welfare of smallholder farmers. Thus, alternative policy measurements aimed at improving the food security and welfare of smallholder farmers should be accompanied by improving their access to formal markets.

Determinants of Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) commercialization and market participation by farmers in Nyandarua County, Kenya

Agricultural commercialization has been promoted as a pathway for enhancing household welfare in developing countries. This paper assesses the extent and determinants of commercialization among smallholder potato farming households in Nyandarua County, Kenya. Data were collected through a survey of 388 potato-producing households and analysed using a crop commercialization index (calculated as a share of the value of produced potato that is marketed) and the Tobit regression model. The average commercialization index was 0.4, implying that only a smaller share of the produced potato is marketed. The extent of potato commercialization varied across gender, education level, productivity, size of potato plots, and farmers' knowledge of production and marketing. The findings also show that household characteristics (such as gender (being male), age, education of the household head, household income) and transaction costs (such as distance to the market) negatively influenced potato commercialization. Conversely, the scale of potato production, knowledge of potato production and marketing, participation in Farmer Field Business School (FFBS) and group membership were positively associated with potato commercialization. Based on the findings, interventions to strengthen women's empowerment and the institutional arrangements for collective action and extension are encouraged. • Agricultural commercialization is a pathway for enhancing household welfare. • Market participation is used as an index for measuring commercialization. • About 40% of produced potato is marketed, indicating medium level of commercialization. • Participation in Farmer Field Business School and collective action are important for commercialization.

Dynamic Food Insecurity and Resilience of Smallholder Households in a Local Food System: The Pandemic Experience in Nigeria

Dynamic Food Insecurity and Resilience of Smallholder Households in a Local Food System: The Pandemic Experience in Nigeria

Smallholders’ livelihoods in the presence of commercial farms in central Kenya

We study smallholder households livelihood profiles in central Kenya in an area characterized by the presence of many large commercial farms. We surveyed 375 smallholder households, compared them according to three categories (employed, contract farmers, households non-engaged with commercial farms), and constructed a livelihood index. The results show that contract farmers and households employed on farms are only a small fraction of all smallholders. Employed and non-employed households show little difference in overall livelihood profiles. Results suggest that employment on large commercial farms is mainly a coping strategy for younger households or in times of need. Contract farmers were found only in a specific location and had better access to irrigation water and higher livestock holdings. Comparison with earlier data shows the persistence of precarious livelihood levels and household strategies aiming at diversification of activities, with little evolution over the last 20 years despite the presence of commercial farms. Overall, there is little evidence that the proximity to the commercial farms offers a way out of poverty for nearby smallholder farmers.

Are smallholder farmers benefiting from malt barley contract farming engagement in Ethiopia?

BackgroundIt is believed that in Ethiopia barley has been cultivated before 3000BC. Among the cereals, it is ranked in fifth place and the most important crop next to teff, sorghum, and wheat in the country. Different works of literature highlight that engagement in contract farming is one of the innovations promoted to tackle technology constraints of the smallholder farmers, as a possible solution to raising productivity and linking smallholders in the emerging modern marketing chains. Associated with the rapid rate of urbanization in the country, there is a high demand for malt barley which is resulting high expansion of beer factories. Consequently, in the study area, many farmers got into a contract agreement with Assela malt barley factories. Recent studies conducted on malt barley in Ethiopia gave much emphasis to the value chain aspect of malt barley. Therefore, the main motive behind this study was to fill the empirical literature gap in the field by giving much emphasis on the impact assessment of malt barley contract arrangement on income and food items dietary diversity of the respondent households.MethodologyTo attain the study objectives, both primary and secondary data were collected and used. Randomly selected 312 households comprising 127 households engaged in malt barley contract farming arrangements and 185 non-contract households were the source of primary data for this study. Secondary data were collected from a review of different works of literature. Both descriptive and econometric models were used to analyze the primary data using Stata software version 14. The propensity score matching model was applied to examine the impact of malt barley contract farming engagement on the income and dietary diversity of the respondents.ResultIt was found that family size, credit use, livestock holding, malt barley production experience, frequency of extension contact, and land allotted for malt barley production positively determine the probability of participation in malt barley contract farming arrangement. Contrary to this, distance to the malt barley collection centers negatively determine the probability of participation in malt barley contract farming. The ATT estimation of the PSM indicated that participation in malt barley contract farming has a positive impact on the income and dietary diversity of the respondent households.ConclusionParticipation in contract farming had a positive and significant impact on the annual income and dietary diversity of the smallholder households. The sensitivity analysis result showed that the impact results estimated by this study are insensitive to unobserved selection bias and the result obtained shows the true impact of contract farming on the income of the households. Therefore, concerned bodies working on malt barley production aspects as a development intervention should work to encourage non-contract farmers to engage in this activity.

Impact of Dairy Production on Smallholder Households Food Security in the Central Gondar Zone, Ethiopia

This study investigated how dairy production affected the food security of households in the Central Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. To collect primary data, 313 households were selected for interviews based on a multistage sampling approach. A review of published and unpublished documents was also conducted for secondary data collection. According to inferential statistics, about 73.08% (household dietary diversity scores (HDDs)) and 72.53% (HFCS) of dairy producer households were food secure, while 32.06% (HDDs) and 33.59% (HFCS) of dairy non-producer households were food secure. Furthermore, the Endogenous Switching Probit Regression model showed that dairy production increased food security among smallholders. Dairy production increased dairy producer households’ food security by 48.4% (HDDs) and 45.9% (HFCS). Also, it would have improved food security by 10.4% (HDDs) and 7.1% (HFCS) for dairy non-producer households. In conclusion, dairy production contributes significantly to enhancing food security for smallholders. Hence, stakeholders must pay attention to the dairy sector to improve its production and reduce household food insecurity.

Production impacts of climate change on agricultural livelihoods among smallholder panel households across Ethiopia

This study analyzes the production impacts of climate change on smallholder agricultural households across Ethiopia. Hypothesizing that climate change affects agricultural livelihoods mainly through productive and distributive effects, this article examines an integrated farm [crop, livestock, mixed] production impacts overtime. Methodically, the comprehensive Ethiopian socioeconomic survey (ESS] panel data, and nation-wide observatory 60-years climate data- precipitation and temperature [1960-2019] were merged to form a joint panel database; then analyzed using Ricardian panel model with random effects regression. Objectively, factor productivity, the rate of convergence, the historical, real, and seasonal climate impacts were investigated against net-agricultural return overtime. The applied panel model augments both the temporal, spatial, and individual effects and yields more efficient and consistent estimates than the cross-sectional and time series models. The results revealed that CC poses net-negative, increasing and significant impacts on factor elasticity, percapita farm output, and net-farm revenue [NFR] due to diminishing marginal returns; the progressive temporal impacts; regressive duration impacts; divergence effects on the growth of net-farm return; and mixed regional, farm, and HH impacts. Therefore, introducing institutionalized sustainable livelihoods framework [green institutions, finance, education, training, research, inputs, subsidy, insurance, market] in agricultural production system would enhance sustainable production and improved welfare among smallholder households even under changing climate.

Action against invasive species: Charcoal production, beekeeping, and Prosopis eradication in Kenya

Prosopis juliflora is an invasive alien leguminous tree introduced as a way of combating desertification, deforestation, and improving soil fertility. Over time, the tree has reported significant negative externalities to farmers. Different strategies such as management through utilization and complete eradication have been proposed to reduce these externalities. We investigate the various factors associated with adherence to these strategies. In the first place, we assess the correlates of charcoal production, beekeeping, and willingness to completely eradicate Prosopis. We then examine the welfare effects of charcoal production and beekeeping. We use survey data from 530 smallholder households in the Baringo county of Kenya who are currently contending with infestation from the invasive tree. Besides other factors, we show that a positive perception about Prosopis invasion increases the probability of engaging in charcoal production and is adversely related to beekeeping and the willingness to completely eradicate Prosopis. Delving into welfare and poverty effects of these activities, we find charcoal production to be income increasing. We argue that a blend of both management and eradication of Prosopis could offer a win-win solution to both improving the welfare and socio-economic conditions of households while also ensuring environmental and ecological safeguards, with implications for broad-based sustainability.

Sorghum as a household food and livelihood security crop under climate change in South Africa: A review

Extreme events, declining rainfall and increasing temperatures under climate change threaten smallholder households’ food and livelihoods security. The potential of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) to contribute to food security and livelihoods of smallholders in South Africa has not been realised, despite its resilience to heat and drought, due to its marginalisation in research, breeding, the scale of production, and policy support. Consequently, to reduce vulnerability and boost sorghum’s position as a key climate change adaptation crop, in this review we examined some biophysical, socio-economic, socio-cultural and institutional barriers that constrain its production and performance on smallholder farms in South Africa. We further suggest pertinent issues to be addressed to improve production and productivity on smallholder farms. Increasing awareness, policy development and support, and capacitation of extension services, as well as improving market access, agronomic and cultural practices, and availability of more locally adapted sorghum varieties are requisite factors in addressing the prevailing constraints limiting sorghum production. Furthermore, tailored and site-specific studies at farm and landscape level are imperative for informed management and decision support. Thus, an integrated and multidisciplinary approach is key in fostering significant improvement in sorghum production and performance in smallholder systems in South Africa to reduce climate change vulnerability. Significance: Sorghum has the potential to bolster food and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in South Africa. Socio-economic, socio-cultural and biophysical challenges limit sorghum production and performance in South Africa. An integrated and multidisciplinary approach is required to optimise the opportunities to improve sorghum production and performance in South Africa.

Impact of Improved Forage Technology Adoption on Dairy Productivity and Household Income: A Propensity Score Matching Estimation in Northern Ethiopia

Adoption of improved forage technologies remains to be one of a promising strategy to boost dairy productivity and enhance household income in many developing countries. However, there are limited rigorous impact evaluation studies on the contributions of such technologies on smallholder dairy productivity and household welfare. This paper examined the impact of improved forage technologies use on smallholder dairy productivity and farm household income in Northern Ethiopia. In this study, a cross-sectional survey design and a multistage stratified sampling procedure were employed. Primary data for the study were obtained from a random sample of 319 rural households, 128 of which are improved forage technology users and the rest are nonusers. The research employed the propensity score matching (PSM) procedure to determine the causal relationship between adoption of improved forage technologies and changes in milk yield and farm household income. Results from PSM revealed that households using improved forage technologies have increased the household milk yield (productivity) by 29.32% and farm income (welfare) by 19.56%. Higher milk yield and annual farm income were compared to those households not using such technologies. Our findings highlight the importance of promoting multiple improved forage technologies among rural smallholder’s dairy producers. Considering this potential, it is suggested that improved forage technology generation, dissemination, and adoption interventions be strengthened for optimum milk production and to attain optimum income under the smallholder farmers’ dairy production system. Moreover, the linkage among research, extension, universities, and farmers needs to be enhanced through facilitating a multistakeholder’s innovation platform.

The Contribution of New Rice for Africa (NERICA) Farming to Livelihood Security of Smallholder Households in Migori, Kenya

Improved people's livelihoods have a great potential to solve food insecurity issues. The uptake and use of enhanced agricultural technologies have been identified as one of the best ways to improve yields of smallholder rural farmers leading to improved livelihoods and stable socio-economic growth. This adoption has been attributed to higher incomes, better nutritional conditions, access to food stability and prices, more employment opportunities, and improved payments for the rural poor. NERICA rice was one such agricultural technology introduced in many countries across Africa to enable smallholder farmers to achieve food security. Previous studies on NERICA adoption in Africa show mixed findings on its effect on rural livelihoods. The main objective of this study was to examine the influence of NERICA rice agricultural technology on the livelihoods of smallholder households in Migori. The study on agricultural technology adoption and livelihood is of great concern to many stakeholders in Kenya because previous studies report low adoption of agricultural technologies in rural households of smallholders whose livelihoods depend on farming and are food insecure. The study was carried out in Migori County. Multistage sampling was used by combining purposive and simple random sampling. Data was collected from 262 NERICA rice farmers selected using a simple random sample, 22 key informants were purposively selected and interviewed, and eight focus group discussions were conducted from purposively selected NERICA rice-farming villages. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS computer software. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis, and the integrated data was triangulated and used to write this report. The findings revealed that the adoption of NERICA contributed to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers by increasing their incomes, creating food security and enhancing their social capital.

Household food security determinants and nutritional status of inhabitants of a peri-urban community: A case study in the Volta region of Ghana

Food shortages and malnutrition widely persist and continue to be rural peculiarities across the sub-region. A cross-sectional study was conducted in a peri-urban community of Dzodze in the Volta region to ascertain the level of food security as well as the nutritional status of the inhabitants using a random sampling technique. This community-based comparative cross-sectional study conducted from May to July 2018 adopted a multistage random sampling and selected 105 households. Socio-demographic data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Chi-square, Cramer’s-V, and Pearson’s correlations models were used to assess the association of socio-demographic, anthropometric and food frequency data while the Logit model, FSI, HCR were used to measure food security. Over half of the sample (59.6%) were in the normal range of BMI which implied good nutritional status. Remarkably, a majority of those in this normal BMI range 81 (77%) were female. Women aged 41years and above constituted a large portion of study participants (54.3%) of which many 43 (41%) were married. Just 4.8% of this group said they were both separated and cohabited with their partners non-customarily. Data on the frequency of food intake by the community revealed that, a majority of 63.4% of the respondents ate three times a day. Most of the people (77.2%, 68.7%, and 86.9%) ate breakfast, lunch, and supper, respectively, daily over a week. The fallouts from the work showed majority (71.5%) of the respondents were food secure and the remaining (about 28.5%) were food insecure. Factors such as age, gender, educational level, household size, and age were found to be significant predictors that influenced food security of the peri-urban community according to the logit model used. The smallholder households according to the computed food security index of 1.13 and normal range of BMI were identified to be indices of food security. Key words: Household food security, peri-urban community, Ghana, Volta Region, Nutritional status