Small Group Class Research Articles

Social and analytic scaffolding in middle school mathematics: managing the dilemma of telling

The current reform movement in mathematics education urges teachers to support students as they make sense of mathematics, while also ensuring that they gain specific mathematical skills and knowledge. The tension between these two expectations gives rise to what we call the dilemma of telling: how to ensure that students come to certain mathematical understandings, without directly telling them what they need to know or do. Our study focused on how two middle school mathematics teachers who were incorporating many aspects of reform mathematics into their instruction responded to this dilemma. Data sources include classroom observations and videotapes of lessons over a three-year period. We found that both teachers devoted the majority of class time to student conversations, both small group and whole class; however, the teachers strategically entered the student-dominated conversations by “telling” to meet specific curricular goals.

Company News

Axess Ultrasound recently met necessary requirements to become a Sonora-accredited probe repair laboratory in accordance with ISO 9001/13485. Facilitated by ISO 9001-certified Sonora Medical Systems, the accreditation process included review of policies and procedures to comply with top-quality principles outlined by the International Organization for Standardization.Axess Ultrasound services customers in 37 states and 11 countries. Its field service professionals diagnose and repair ultrasound systems, transducers, and circuit boards, helping hospitals, physicians, imaging centers, and other group practices avoid major expenses by repairing instead of replacing equipment. “Although this has been a long and intensive process, the results mean our customers can rely on the safety and efficacy of our probe repair process,” says Jack Dill, executive director of Axess Ultrasound.Siemens Healthcare recently introduced LifeNet 2.0, a secure, online Web portal to help customers oversee and manage the productivity of their Siemens imaging equipment. Through this direct online connection between customers and Siemens, LifeNet 2.0 allows customers access to real-time service information, 24 hours a day, seven days a week.“This web-based portal is designed for individual user needs,” says Rick Legleiter, senior vice president of customer service for Siemens. “LifeNet 2.0 helps record equipment maintenance for compliance, knows which rooms require immediate service attention, and allows the customer to focus on imaging patients.”The portal allows users to view crucial information directly from the home page and provides access to tools for in-depth analysis as well. Customers can review a list of open service requests and details of those requests and check for latest updates. By browsing through the equipment page, users also can review a list of their equipment, service status, service agreements, and planned maintenance events. Among other features, the LifeNet 2.0 reports page includes a variety of service management reports, and customers can program the portal to automatically deliver those reports to a designated e-mail address every week, month, and quarter.Fluke Corporation has released its 2009 Calibration Training Course Planner. The planner offers a variety of training sessions in electrical, temperature, pressure, and flow calibration in 50 individual classes in Arizona, Canada, Colorado, Florida, Texas, Utah, and Washington throughout the year. Taught in small group classes by experts in their respective disciplines, these calibration training opportunities combine lecture with hands-on, practical learning.Additional information, including complete course descriptions and online registration, is available at http://us.fluke.com.

European Union's Moratorium Impact on Food Biotechnology: A Discussion-Based Scenario

Genetically modified (GM) crops such as maize (Zea mays L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Moench], and canola (Brassica rapa L.) have been widely adopted by American farmers. In spite of their use in the United States, the European Union (EU) imposed a 6-year de facto moratorium (1998-2004) on the cultivation/import of transgenic crops. Although the U.S. government has assured stakeholders of their safety, the EU continues to be an outspoken opponent. This can largely be attributed to a lack of trust in the regulatory process, and especially a cynical perspective on the underlying science and institutions that govern approval. Such disparities were illustrated in 2003 when the United States donated GM maize to aid African countries stricken by famine. Under purported EU threats of retaliatory trade sanctions, African officials refused the aid. An examination of this episode contrasts the potential discord between those affected and those who formulate government policy. Using resources from both sides of the debate, this scenario summarizes the pertinent issues regarding EU's refusal to the import transgenic crops. A group discussion and debate protocol was developed for facilitating small group and entire class consideration of the scenario while strengthening student critical thinking skills.

Abstract 2368: Baseline Dietary Glycemic Load as a Predictor of Weight Loss on the Atkins, Zone, Weight Watchers and Ornish Diets.

Background: Methods for matching patients with optimal diets are lacking. We previously reported that 4 popular diets (Atkins, Zone, Weight Watchers and Ornish), which range from low to high in dietary carbohydrate and glycemic load, produced similar 1-year weight loss in a randomized trial. We tested the hypothesis that dietary glycemic load at baseline (prior to dietary intervention) would affect the magnitude of weight loss from each diet. Methods: We randomized 160 overweight and obese adults (mean BMI=35) to follow the Atkins, Zone, Weight Watchers, or Ornish dietary advice. Participants attempted maximum dietary adherence and attended 4 small-group classes during the first 2 months, then self-selected dietary adherence levels for the following 10 months. One-year weight loss for each diet was determined according to tertiles of baseline dietary glycemic load, assessed by 3-day food records, nutrition analysis software, and published glycemic index tables. Missing data were replaced with baseline values in an intent-to-treat analysis (n=40 per diet). Results: The association between 1-year weight loss and dietary glycemic load at baseline differed significantly according to diet type (p<.01 for interaction). Participants in the highest tertile of dietary glycemic load at baseline had greater weight loss on lower carbohydrate diets (−4.6 kg, −4.6 kg, −2.1 kg, −1.5 kg for Atkins, Zone, Weight Watchers, and Ornish, respectively; p=0.05 for linear trend), and participants in the lowest tertile of dietary glycemic load at baseline had greater weight loss on higher carbohydrate diets (+0.3 kg, −1.0 kg, −3.2 kg, −5.3 kg for Atkins, Zone, Weight Watchers, and Ornish, respectively; p=0.01 for linear trend). For the middle tertile of baseline dietary glycemic load, weight loss did not differ between diets (−1.7 kg, −4.1 kg, −3.8 kg, −1.5 kg for Atkins, Zone, Weight Watchers, and Ornish, respectively, p=0.6 for linear trend, p=0.3 for two highest vs. two lowest). Conclusions: Dietary glycemic load intake prior to dietary intervention may impact the effectiveness of popular diets for weight loss, and may be an important consideration in optimal diet selection for individual patients. These results should be verified in other study populations.

A Randomized Clinical Trial of Peak Flow versus Symptom Monitoring in Older Adults with Asthma

To determine whether peak flow monitoring has value above and beyond symptom monitoring when used as part of an asthma management plan. From a large managed-care organization, 296 adults, aged 50-92 yr, were recruited and randomly assigned in equal numbers to either use of symptoms or peak flow rate (twice daily or "as needed") for asthma monitoring, and monitored every 6 mo for 2 yr. Interventions were delivered in four 90-min small-group classes and included a personalized action plan and coaching in proper use of asthma inhalers. We found no significant differences between peak flow rate and symptom monitoring, or between twice-daily and as-needed peak flow monitoring in the primary or secondary study outcomes: health care utilization (acute, nonacute, or total asthma visits), Asthma Quality-of-Life Questionnaire (AQLQ) scores, and lung function. AQLQ scores and prebronchodilator FEV1 increased significantly for both groups between baseline and 6 mo (AQLQ: mean, 0.4 units; 95% confidence interval, 0.3, 0.5; p < 0.0001; FEV1% predicted: mean, 4%). Inhaler technique improved substantially in both groups. Peak flow monitoring has no advantage over symptom monitoring as an asthma management strategy for older adults with moderate-severe asthma when used in a comprehensive asthma management program. Improved outcomes in both groups suggest that understanding proper medication use, regular monitoring of asthma status, and understanding how to respond to changes are of primary importance.

Using class interviews to evaluate teaching and courses in higher education

New approaches and teaching methods in Higher Education call for a variety of measures to evaluate their effectiveness, particularly where student demography is also changing and language assumes added importance. Student rating instruments have proved valuable in obtaining systematic feedback on students' experiences of teaching and of courses but hold some disadvantages. This article describes the use of small group class interviews, also known as Small Group Instructional Diagnosis (SGID), as a useful adjunct to student ratings. Although time intensive, this model holds numerous advantages. It acknowledges the value of student opinion and offers opportunities for dialogue about teaching and learning. Lecturers benefit as they are partners in planning the evaluation and in implementing and monitoring the effects of changes introduced. A lasting value of Small Group Instructional Diagnosis lies in the promotion of a culture of reflection on teaching and learning issues by both students and teaching staff. South African Journal of Higher Education Vol. 19(5) 2005: 943-955

A packaged learning process: The consolidated approach

Social work educators do not have the luxury of teaching one concept at a time. With this in mind, the authors present a method of combining different content areas within one teaching exercise. Practice faculty can combine several concepts by using case studies to teach assessment skills and treatment issues of populations-at-risk. By assigning students an assessment of a case study character who is a member of a population at risk, the lecturer teaches a new skill and in the process students acquire additional knowledge about that population. The techniques use: (1) a genogram and an ecomap assessment of a woman in a short story; and (2) a problem-solving schematic assessment of a woman in a case study. The teaching techniques involve four steps: individual assignments, small group analysis, class assignments, and full class discussion. Class discussions revealed that students did gain knowledge of women's issues while acquiring practice skills. These strategies are appropriate for use in foundation or advanced social work curricula.

Online Peer Evaluation in Basic Pharmacology

Objective: An online, Web-based peer evaluation was designed to enable students enrolled in a basic pharmacology course to complete an anonymous peer evaluation reflecting students' contributions to a variety of small-group class activities. Description: As part of the ongoing curriculum renewal at the University of Missouri—Kansas City (UMKC) School of Medicine, small-group activities were incorporated into a historically successful lecture-based course in basic pharmacology in 2000. The class was divided into six small groups (six or seven students per group) and over a two-month period each group completed three activities: They solved six problem-based learning cases, they wrote a group paper, and they delivered a formal group presentation on an assigned topic using an evidence-based medicine approach. Small-group activities were introduced into the class to address three objectives in UMKC's competency-based curriculum: problem solving, effective communication, and lifelong learning. A peer evaluation was introduced into the course to allow each student to complete an anonymous peer evaluation for every student participating in the group. The evaluation allows students to rate the contribution of each group member to the overall success or failure of the group effort, and it addresses a concern expressed by students that all group members receive equal credit regardless of individual effort. The results of the peer evaluation were used in assigning student grades. The online evaluation was prepared using FrontPage 2000, and students were able to complete it on any computer with Internet access. The evaluation consists of 15 items, which students rate using scores of 1 to 5. To complete an evaluation, each student enters his or her social security number and selects a group member by selecting the group member's name from a drop-down box. These two pieces of information are collected to ensure that each student submits only one evaluation for each student in the group and to facilitate data analysis. Many of the items address issues of professionalism. Each student receives a summary of his or her peer evaluations within 72 hours via e-mail, and in addition to the personal scores the students receives an aggregate score for their group and for the class for each evaluation item. The online peer evaluation allows students to add anonymous written comments, which are also returned to each student within 72 hours via e-mail. Discussion: The online peer evaluation was well accepted by the students, based upon written comments on the evaluation. There was a strong correlation between the students' written comments and numerical ratings of their fellow group members. The evaluations enabled faculty to identify students who had made outstanding or marginal contributions to small-group activities; they enabled students to share their assessments with their peers anonymously. Because of this success, the process will be continued in future classes and will probably be adopted by other courses. A significant modification planned for upcoming classes is that aggregated comments and rankings for each student will be shared with the student's faculty mentor.

Developing the Academic Talents of African American Students during the Non-School Hours: Four Exemplary Programs

This article distinguishes among the several types of programs that provide academic, social, cultural, recreational, and other enrichment opportunities to children and youth during the nonschool hours. It focuses on four academic programs that have demonstrated measurable evidence of effectiveness and achievement gains, particularly for African American students, illuminating some of the specific factors that have made the programs successful. Evidence of an academic focus, strong research designs and evaluation procedures to determine program effectiveness, wide replicability, and effectiveness with African American children and youth are the criteria for selection of these programs. Forty-six years after the Supreme Court's decision to integrate the nation's public schools in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), African American students continue to score below European American students in the critical areas of science, mathematics, reading, and writing (National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1999; National Center for Education Statistics, 1998). All stakeholders in the lives of African American children have acknowledged this disparity and sought alternative and supplemental learning opportunities for these children (Fashola, 1999a; Hudley & Barnes, 1993). Given that only so much can be accomplished during the regular school day, many people often look to the non-school hours as prime time for providing their children with additional academic, social, cultural, recreational, and other enrichment opportunities (Fashola, 1998; Posner & Vandell, 1994). A number of programs have proven effective in meeting these needs. Two of the most common are after-school programs and school-based, extended-day programs. Afterschool programs are typically targeted toward children between the ages of 5 and 18. Many such programs are not school-based, and some emphasize academic as well as nonacademic activities to help children make creative use of their free time. Although increases in academic achievement, attendance, or other school-related outcomes may result from participation in these programs, academic achievement is rarely their primary goal. Afterschool programs are more likely to provide transportation, a wider variety of recreational programs, and an increased adult-to-child ratio. Examples of after-school programs include Boys and Girls clubs, the YMCA/YWCA, Big Brothers/Big Sisters, some 4-H programs, ASPIRA, church programs, and some municipal parks and recreational programs. Such programs offer specialized activities that often hire qualified professionals and volunteers as instructors in areas such as ballet, tap-dancing, music, karate, chess, and a number of other activities. School-based, extended-day programs typically take place during the non-school hours-either before or after classes-and provide a mixture of academic, recreational, and cultural activities. These programs differ from daycare and after-school programs in that their academic components are usually directly connected to or aligned with the goals, outcomes, and methods of academic instruction of the schools at which they are based. They also generally employ credentialed teachers in the conduct of small-group or tutorial remedial classes, homework-supervision clubs, study skills classes, and advanced or supplementary courses (e.g., foreign language or advanced sciences). Additionally, such programs may engage paraprofessionals and/or community volunteers who are trained and supervised by teachers to provide cultural and recreational programs as well as academic or nonacademic services. Extended-day programs can be schoolwide or districtwide in their scope, and though they are rarely mandatory, many schools or districts provide incentives for children to attend. Given the general dearth of enriching scholastic experiences available to African American students, academic enrichment and remediation should be a primary focus of afterschool and extended-day programs. …

Review of cost efficiency and efficacy of delivering a diabetes education program in a southwest rural healthcare facility.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of redesigning the education program from individual instructional sessions to a format where the majority of instruction was provided through small group classes. Patient outcomes of lifestyle changes as evidenced by weight loss, improved glycemic control, adoption of a consistent pattern of blood glucose monitoring, and increased physical activity were evaluated using a physician satisfaction survey and a patient satisfaction and lifestyle change survey. The findings indicate that the changes in the education program accommodated a variety of needs; facilitated cost-effectiveness; were convenient for the patients, educators, and physicians; and still promoted adaptive lifestyle changes in behavior leading to improved glycemic control, increased levels of physical activity, and weight loss in persons with type 2 diabetes.

Gender differences in motivation and strategy use in science: Are girls rote learners?

This study explored Ridley and Novak's (1983) hypothesis that gender differences in science achievement are due to differences in rote and meaningful learning modes. To test this hypothesis, we examined gender differences in fifth- and sixth-grade students' (N = 213) self-reports of confidence, motivation goals (task mastery, ego, and work avoidance), and learning strategies (active and superficial) in whole-class and small-group science lessons. Overall, the results revealed few gender differences. Compared with girls, boys reported greater confidence in their science abilities. Average-achieving girls reported greater use of meaningful learning strategies than did their male counterparts, whereas low-ability boys reported a stronger mastery orientation than did low-ability girls. The results further showed that students report greater confidence and mastery motivation in small-group than whole-class lessons. In contrast, students reported greater work avoidance in whole-class than small-group lessons. In general, the findings provide little support for Ridley and Novak's hypothesis that girls tend to engage in rote-level learning in science classes. Differences in self-reports of motivation and strategy-use patterns were more strongly related to the student's ability level and to the structure of learning activities (small group vs. whole class) than to gender. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Professional Development: Lesson Design and Reflection

After twenty-five years of teaching junior high and middle school students, I might expect designing lessons to be a mindless routine. Yet I believe that today is an exciting time to be creating lessons. The excitement comes from seeing a subtle and powerful shift from thinking about lesson design as what I will do to prepare students to meet district outcomes to thinking about what learners will do to understand mathematics. This shift from “I” and “outcomes” to “what learners will do” has caused me to change from writing my lesson plans as a linear list of teacher activities to writing them as a matrix of student activities based on two dimensions of communication: four modes-oral, written, visual, and kinesthetic-and four audiences-self, partner, small group, and whole class. This matrix is shown in figure 1. The type of audience is indicated by the number of dots. One dot represents communicating with self, two dots represent communicating with a partner, and so on.

Developing a More Interactive Classroom: A Continuing Odyssey

This paper describes a 30-year individual transition from traditional lecturing to more interactive undergraduate teaching. The advent of required evaluations by students in the late 1970s spurred efforts to be more responsive to students' questions and then to stimulate more questions and participation by students, and eventually led to giving formal credit for class participation. Small-group discussions (collaborative learning groups), simulation games, neighbor talk, and split-class debates were added later. Improved learning and use of student names, and the muddiest point technique, have been added more recently, as have extensive small-group class presentations. In the course on deviant groups, regular lectures are no longer given. Secret ballot evaluations by students have confirmed the value of these changes, most of which resulted from conversations with colleagues. Small-group discussions and group presentations to the class seem most valuable as general interactive substitutes for lecturing.

STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN SMALL-GROUP INSTRUCTION VERSUS TEACHER-CENTERED INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS

ABSTRACT Reports urging the use of small-groups in teaching mathematics have seldom documented comparative student achievement to another method of teaching. This article reports the results of five contrasts between small-group learning and a more teacher-centered instructional style. The cases reported are from junior high, high school, and college mathematics classes. In no case did the small-group class perform more poorly than the one led by a teacher; in one case, when long-term retention was measured, the small-group class performed better.

Focus Group Interviews for Course Evaluations: Proj ects for the Small Group Class

Focus Group Interviews for Course Evaluations: Proj ects for the Small Group Class

How good are clinical MEDLINE searches? A comparative study of clinical end-user and librarian searches

The objective of this study was to determine the quality of MEDLINE searches done by physicians, physician trainees, and expert searchers (clinicians and librarians). Its design was an analytic survey with independent replication in a setting of self-service online searching from medical wards, an intensive care unit, a coronary care unit, an emergency room, and an ambulatory clinic in a 300-bed teaching hospital. Participating were all M.D. clinical clerks, house, and attending staff responsible for patients in the above settings. Intervention for all participants consisted of a 2-h small group class and 1-h practice session on MEDLINE searching (GRATEFUL MED) before free access to MEDLINE. Search questions from 104 randomly selected novice searches were given to 1 of 13 clinicians with prior search experience and 1 of 3 librarians to run independent searches (triplicated searches). Measurements and main results from these unique citations of the triplicated searches were sent to expert clinicians to rate for relevance (7-point scale). Recall (number of relevant citations retrieved from an individual search divided by the total number of relevant citations from all searches on the same topic) and precision (proportion of relevant citations retrieved in each search) were calculated. Librarians were significantly better than novices for both. Librarians had equivalent recall to, and better precision than, experienced end-users. Unexpectedly, only 20% of relevant citations were retrieved by more than one search of the set of three, with the conclusion that novice searchers on MEDLINE via GRATEFUL MED after brief training have relatively low recall and precision. Recall improves with experience but precision remains suboptimal. Further research is needed to determine the “learning curve,” evaluate training interventions, and explore the non-overlapping retrieval of relevant citations by different searchers.

The Prisoner's Dilemma: A computer adaptation

This report presents a computerized version of the Prisoner's Dilemma game which will run on an Apple II+, IIe, and IIc. A case is made for utilizing the game/computer program in interpersonal, small group, and social conflict classes. The specific class units could include interdependence, structure, trust, conflict, and game theory. The computer program contains four versions of the game. The versions are (1) Rational, (2) Partially rational, (3) Nonrational, and (4) Assumed rational. All versions of the game may be played by groups or individuals against each other or against the computer. The project is designed to enable the teacher to utilize the microcomputer in the communication classroom.

Care of Postpartum Adolescents

An Adolescent Postpartum Care Plan is presented based on the developmental knowledge that adolescence is a time of great physical social and cognitive change. Part of a larger plan developed for use by nurses who care for postpartum adolescents delivering through the Rochester Adolescent Maternity Program at the University of Rochester Medical Center the care plan becomes a part of the patients permanent record following delivery. To develop a relationship with the younger mother it is important to remain nonjudgmental. This may mean that the nurse needs to move beyond her own feelings about teen pregnancy and to get to know the young woman individual. As many teenagers find it difficult to talk spontaneously they need help from a sensitive nurse to express their feelings. In addition to questioning the young mother about her labor delivery and postpartum experiences the nurse should learn about the young mothers life at home and the father of the baby. As the latter may be a particularly sensitive area it should be approached with care. The nurse must assess the adolescent and her infant and observe the young mother interacting with her child. The intellectual and cognitive limitations of the adolescent must be considered if patient teaching is to be effective. A young mother who does not have the self control or attention span necessary to sit through an hour-long class on infant care may benefit from a hands-on 1-to-1 teaching session with her nurse. Such teaching with a live infant is particularly effective with young mothers as is a small group class. To deliver both effective teaching and nursing care it is essential to know how far the adolescent has progressed in her own development. The late adolescent often can be treated like an adult in terms of how she is expected to care for her infant and respond to patient teaching. The early and mid-adolescent may behave differently calling for both different expectations and a different teaching style. A chart outlines the patient care plan identifying the nursing diagnosis/patient problem expected outcomes and goals and nursing interventions. It is important that the nurse discuss contraceptive planning with the young mother as soon after delivery as possible. The best starting point is to question the teen as to what she knows about contraception and her experience with the various methods. It can be helpful to follow up birth control instruction with a simple handout that describes how to use a particular contraceptive method and explains the danger signals the side effects and where to call for help in case of any problems.

A small-group instruction experiment in medical education.

The authors challenge the assumption that the passive lecture-based curriculum that dominates most preclinical medical education optimizes learning for all students. For this reason, an experiment was conducted in which medical students were given the option of taking some courses as small groups in a Socratic format rather than in lectures; 67 percent of the students applied for the small-group option. Personality factors, measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, were used to determine whether there was any correlation between learning preferences and personality types. Most of the students preferred having more opportunities for small-group instruction. Most students and faculty members found the experience profitable; a significantly greater proportion of students of the intuitive-feeling personality type reacted positively to the experience than did other personality types. The small-group classes required more faculty time than did lectures, and this often prevented faculty support of the Socratic approach.

Student behaviors, teacher reinforcement, student ability, and learning

Ninety-eight children were observed for 6-min periods on each of 10 days during 50-min, small-group classes in either mathematics, science, geography, or language usage. Two student behaviors (on-task behavior and accuracy of responding to teacher-directed questions) and three types of teacher reinforcement (verbal reinforcement for on-task behavior and accurate responding and tangible reinforcers) were coded during each observation period. A post-test of achievement, directly related to the content of the lessons, was administered at the end of the 10 days of instruction. The causal effects of student behaviors, teacher reinforcement, and student ability (reading achievement and intelligence) on achievement were evaluated using path analysis. The strongest effects were from student ability measures, with accurate responding by students and teacher reinforcement of accurate responding exhibiting smaller, but significant effects. Findings are discussed to qualify the relationship between overt classroom behaviors and degree of learning and the mediating effects of student ability.