Smaller Florets Research Articles

A Proposal for a Processing Line for Cauliflower and Broccoli Floretting

The edible portions of cauliflowers and broccoli are immature flower heads composed of florets attached to the stalk. In most cases, larger florets are separated into smaller pieces during processing. Complex processing lines for cauliflower and broccoli floretting are available on the market, but they are very expensive and require a large working area. Therefore, the aim of this study was to present a proposal for a new floretting unit dedicated to this group of vegetables. The unit will be operated in small farms; it will help producers shorten processing times and sell their goods for higher prices. It was assumed that the unit will feature two main devices: a vegetable crusher and a calibrator. The crusher will remove the florets from the stalk and break larger florets into smaller pieces of appropriate size. Florets with a diameter of 2 to 6 cm will be separated by the calibrator. During the process, leaves, stalks, and very small florets will fall into separate containers, and these fractions will be further processed into food products. The entire process will be carried out directly on the farm, which can increase potential profits by around 25%. Due to a shorter processing time, the product is likely to be fresher and more appealing for consumers.

Cauliflower and broccoli floretting machine

Abstract
 Florets are the main edible parts of cauliflowers and broccoli, but stalks and leaves are also used in the production of vegetable soup mixes. In industrial processing lines, large cauliflower and broccoli inflorescences have to be separated into smaller florets with a diameter of 2 to 6 cm. Simple and inexpensive machines for floretting cauliflowers and broccoli, including devices that can be used in small-scale production, are in short supply on the market. Therefore, the aim of this study was to design a floretting machine composed of a load-bearing frame, a processing table, a crushing chamber and a horizontal conveyor. In the first stage of the process, one of the two conical knives is used to separate florets and leaves from stalks. The stalks fall into a container under the processing table, and the leaves are picked manually from the material on the table and are placed in a separate container. In the second stage, the separated florets are manually fed into the crushing chamber where larger florets are separated into smaller parts. The crushing chamber is composed of a rotating crushing roller and a fixed screen at the bottom. Florets that have been cut into the appropriate size pass through the screen and fall onto a conveyor belt under the crushing chamber. The quality of the floretting process can be inspected visually by the operator, and impurities or excessively damaged florets can be removed from the conveyor belt. In the final stage, the separated florets are transported to a container. The designed machine can be operated directly on the farm; therefore, the resulting produce is fresher than products that are transported and separated in a food processing plant

Design of and Experiment with Secondary Cutting Equipment for Broccoli

To solve the problem of large-sized blocks in single-process broccoli cutting, this paper proposes the design of broccoli secondary cutting equipment, in which the screening device with differential round belts, spiral attitude-adjusting mechanism, double-baffle conveyor belt, block-centering chute and disc-type cutter are analyzed and designed. According to the simulation of the motion of the blocks on the differential belts, the speeds of the two belts were 300 mm/s and 600 mm/s, respectively. The kinematic analysis of the spiral attitude-adjusting mechanism was performed, and the speed of the spiral rod was calculated to be greater than 64.5 rpm. The speed of the double-baffle conveyor belt was greater than 10.61 rpm to not obstruct the blocks and achieve diversion. A force analysis of the inclined centering chute was performed to reduce the damage during block conveying, and the inclination angle of the inclined centering chute was calculated to be greater than 27.02°. The parameters of the blade and its driving motor were calculated. Effective secondary cutting equipment for broccoli was thus developed. After secondary cutting, the size difference of two small florets obtained was between 0–8 mm, the success rate of cutting was 94.8%, and the efficiency was 47 pieces/min, which verified the reasonableness and feasibility of the second cutting equipment scheme.

Bee community composition, but not diversity, is influenced by floret size in cultivated sunflowers

Nectar-related traits influence the number of bee visits to sunflowers, but the effects of floret size on the diversity and composition of bee communities are unknown. In 4 year × planting date combinations, bees were collected from sunflowers with small (< 7.5 mm), medium (7.5–9 mm), or large (> 9 mm) florets, and counts of foraging bees were used to clarify bee responses to plant traits. No effect of floret size on diversity of foraging bees was found, but associations of bee tongue length and floret size led to differences in the communities foraging on sunflowers with small, medium, or large florets. Though most wild bees preferred to forage on plants with more nectar and smaller florets (≈ easier access to nectar), Bombus spp. showed an opposite response to floret size, foraging preferentially on lines with large florets. Changes in Melissodes spp. foraging preference in the presence of Bombus spp. also suggest interactions between small- and large-bodied bees may be important.

The bHLH transcription factor PPLS1 regulates the color of pulvinus and leaf sheath in foxtail millet (Setaria italica).

The bHLH transcription factor, PPLS1, interacts with SiMYB85 to control the color of pulvinus and leaf sheath by regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis in foxtail millet (Setaria italica). Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), a self-pollinated crop with numerous small florets, is difficult for cross-pollination. The color of pulvinus and leaf sheath with purple being dominant to green is an indicative character and often used for screening authentic hybrids in foxtail millet crossing. Deciphering molecular mechanism controlling this trait would greatly facilitate genetic improvement of cultivars in foxtail millet. Here, using the F2 bulk specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing approach, we mapped the putative causal gene for the purple color of pulvinus and leaf sheath (PPLS) trait to a 100Kb region on chromosome 7. Expression analyses of the 15 genes in this region revealed that Seita.7G195400 (renamed here as PPLS1) was differentially expressed between purple and green cultivars. PPLS1 encodes a bHLH transcription factor and is localized in the nucleus with a transactivation activity. Furthermore, we observed that expression of a MYB transcription factor gene, SiMYB85 (Seita.4G086300) involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis, shows a totally positive association with that of PPLS1. Heterologous co-expression of both PPLS1 and SiMYB85 in tobacco leaves led to elevated anthocyanin accumulation and expression of some anthocyanin-related genes. Furthermore, PPLS1 physically interacts with SiMYB85. Taken together, our results suggest that PPLS1 interacts with SiMYB85 to control the color of pulvinus and leaf sheath by regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis in foxtail millet.

The evolution of genetic diversity of broccoli cultivars in China since 1980

Broccoli is a worldwide vegetable famous for good nutrition that is particularly rich in sulforaphane. The evolution of 95 broccoli cultivars that were widely collected and cultivated in China since 1980 was evaluated using 35 pairs of SSR markers. Thirty-five markers were selected from 960 pairs of SSR markers designed from Brassica oleracea, rapa and napus by two resources with different maturity periods. The results revealed that all 35 pairs of SSR markers were polymorphic, and 167 alleles were amplified with an average of 4.8 per marker. The mean content was 0.79 for polymorphism information, with a range from 0.48 to 0.99. The genetic diversity indexes ranged from 0.6909 to 0.8969, with an average of 0.7809. Genetic diversity analysis indicated the 95 genotypes could be separated into five primary sub-groups at a 0.72 distance. Sub-group A included more than 70% of genotypes with early and mid-early maturating cultivars, and the cultivars covered more than 87% of the genotypes of the 95 materials, including the primary cultivars widely planted that directed the domestication of broccoli in China in the past 37 years. Sub-groups B and C contained one inbred line with high generation and one DH line, respectively, suggesting both were innovative resources in cultivation. Sub-groups D and E were all inbred lines, and sub-group D had six members with similar characteristics: small florets, high-domed head, tall plants with nearly no lateral branches and good heat tolerance. Sub-group E had five members that presented similar wrinkle leaf morphology, and most matured at an intermediate rate, except IVF-B18. In this study, the evolution of broccoli cultivars in China was first summarized overall, together with their characteristics and distributions in China. Our study provides important information on genetic diversity and for cultivar replacement of broccoli in China, in addition to two new germplasms and polymorphism markers for research and molecular breeding.

Variation in floret size explains differences in wild bee visitation to cultivated sunflowers

AbstractWild and managed bees are needed to move sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) pollen, both to create hybrid seed and to encourage high, consistent yields when those hybrids are subsequently grown. Among floral traits that influence bee preference, floret size may be critical, as the depth of the corolla affects the accessibility of nectar. Sampling and observation of inbred maintainer (HA) lines were used to assess variation in floret size, and to measure any effects of floret size on pollinator visitation. Among 100 inbreds sampled, there was significant variation among the lines, with floret lengths of 6.8–9.9 mm. Floret length, measured before anthesis, was closely related to corolla depth during anthesis and was consistent between 2 years (environments). Pollinator observations on 30 inbred lines showed floret size explained a majority (52%) of the variation in wild bee preference, with a reduction in floret length of 2 mm more than doubling pollinator activity. Though honey bee, Apis mellifera L., colonies were located ≈ 60 m from the plots, near-zero honey bee activity in the sunflowers precluded an assessment of how strongly this managed pollinator is affected by floret length. Production of inbreds and hybrids with smaller florets could enhance sunflower pollination, but genetic markers for floret size are needed to facilitate selection, and an understanding of potential trade-offs also is required. Information on variation and heritability of other traits, such as pollen and nectar rewards, could help explain residual variation in wild bee visitation to sunflowers.

SYSTEMATICAL COMPARATIVE FOR TWO SPECIES AMARANTHUS albus L. AND AMARANTHUS gracilis DEFS. (AMARANTHACEAE) IN IRAQ

This study dealt with comparative taxonomic study for the two species Amarantus albus L. and Amaranthus gracilis Defs. in Iraq . It was included the important morphological characters for roots, stems, leaves ,petioles ,inflorescences and its parts ,floral parts ,fruits and seeds . Also the dimensions and properties of each part have been recorded ,even its colors which helps in isolated and diagnosed the two species, the first one recognized by its white stems while the other one had red stems, also the first species characterized by axillaries sessile inflorescences with so small florets while the other one had terminal clusters spike inflorescence . Stamens were three in first species with short filament while they were 2-3 stamens with long filament in the other one. Also the study determined the rat of the flowering period for the two species as well as the study of ecological and geographical distribution for the two species in Iraq, the results documented with pictures. It could be depended to studied traits of the plant species for classification.

Environment Effects of Tuberose Forcing Culture by Different Planting Dates and Varieties

In the northern China, Tuberose is planted in spring following man-forced dormancy in winter and blooms in summer or autumn. The forcing culture was carried out under greenhouse environment to advance blooming to spring and to evaluate the vegetative and reproductive characteristics of tuberose. Effects of three planting dates (30th Oct., 30th Nov, and 20th Dec), two cultivars (Single and Double) were determined. The results showed that Oct planting gave more percentage of corm sprouting, longer spikes and flower stems, more but smaller florets; however, more number of days was required to bloom than other planting dates. Double variety normally had more sprouting, flowering, florets, shorter spikes, and better quality of cutting flower, but it bloomed later than Single variety. The quality of cutting flowers produced in the greenhouse was decreased compared with local field produced flowers, particularly when planting date was late, with the exception of Double in Oct planting. So, the forcing cultivation of tuberose may be performed with Double and in Oct planting in local greenhouse and without man-forced winter dormancy of corm after harvest.

Genetic Analysis of Streaked and Abnormal Floret Mutant st-fon

A double mutant with streaked leaf and abnormal floret was found and temporarily named streaked leaf and floral organ number mutant (st-fon). For this mutant, besides white streak appeared on culm, leaves and panicles, the number of floral organs increased and florets cracked. The extreme phenotype was that several small florets grew from one floret or branch rachis in small florets extended and developed into panicles. By using transmission electron microscope to observe the ultrastructure of white histocytes of leaves at the seedling stage, the white tissues which showed abnormal plastids, lamellas and thylakoids could not develop into normal chloroplast, and the development of chloroplast was blocked at the early growth stage of plastid. Scanning electron microscope and paraffin section were also used to observe the development of floral organs, and the results indicated that the development of floral meristem was out of order and unlimited, whereas in the twisty leaves, vascular bundle sheath cells grew excessively, or some bubbly cells increased. Genetic analyses carried out by means of cross and backcross with four normal-leaf-color materials revealed that the mutant is of cytoplasm inheritance.

Post-harvest browning syndrome and other qualities and defects in Backhousia myrtifolia

SummaryBackhousia myrtifolia is a species native to Australia that shows potential as a cut flower crop. During Spring and Summer, it bears numerous small florets with prominent white sepals and glossy deep-green foliage. B. myrtifolia is harvested either when tight white buds are present in the centre of the star-shaped sepals, or following bud burst, after the petals and stamens have abscised to leave only the sepals.Wilting and brown-to-black discolouration of the flowers and foliage can markedly reduce stem quality. Several forms of discolouration were characterised over the 2004 – 2006 flowering seasons and were collectively termed ‘post-harvest browning syndrome’. Further research based on the symptomatology described herein is required to elucidate the causal agent(s).

Somaclonal variation and stability of GUS gene expression in transgenic agapanthus (Agapanthus praecox ssp. orientalis) plants at the flowering stage

Agapanthus (Agapanthus praecox ssp. orientalis), a liliaceous perennial, is cultivated as an ornamental plant because of its beautiful, blue-violet to white flowers. We have previously produced transgenic plants containing the s-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene under the control of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter in an experimental strain of Agapanthus via Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation. These transgenic plants have been cultivated for 5 yr after transplantation to pots. In the present study, we carried out morphological characterization, and examination of the ploidy level, pollen fertility and stability of GUS gene expression in 12 transgenic plants derived from five independent lines at the flowering stage. Flow cytometry (FCM) analysis indicated that transgenic plants of four lines kept the diploid level, but those of the remaining one line were tetraploid. For all of the 12 transgenic plants, some morphological variations were observed both in vegetative and floral organs such as decreased number of leaves per inflorescence, smaller leaves, shorter inflorescence stalks, decreased number of florets per inflorescence and smaller florets. Pollen fertility of all the transgenic plants was below 5% as determined by acetocarmine staining. All the 12 transgenic plants showed stable expression of the GUS gene in leaves, roots, tepals, pistils, and stamens, as indicated by histochemical GUS assay, fluorometric GUS assay, and/or real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. No apparent GUS gene silencing was observed in transgenic agapanthus plants even after 5 yr of cultivation.

Early angiosperms from the Lower Cretaceous of Jixi, eastern Heilongjiang, China

Early angiosperms from the Lower Cretaceous Chengzihe Formation exposed near the city of Jixi in Northeast China are reported here. Ten taxa are presented in this paper including two new genera ( Zhengia, Xingxuephyllum), three new species ( Jixia chengzihensis, Zhengia chinensis, Xingxuephyllum jixiense), and three taxa are emended ( Asiatifolium elegans, Jixia pinnatipartita, Shenkuoa caloneura). Also, descriptions of four species are included, Jixia sp., Xingxueina heilongjangensis, Reproductive A, and Reproductive B. Dating of the fossil angiosperms is based upon the Hauterivian age of dinoflagellates found in marine sediments conformably underlying the beds from which the angiosperms were found, and on the biostratigraphic correlation of the Chengzihe Formation to some relevant equivalents of the neighboring South Primorye, Russia that have alternating marine and non-marine beds. Of special interest is the diversity of angiosperms found, the small size of the leaves and the associated reproductive material probably attached to an angiosperm leaf. It consists of an elongate axis that bears small florets arranged helically, the surface of which is covered with abundant pollen similar to late Valanginian–Hauterivian inaperturate pollen of Afropollis from Israel. The angiosperms from the Chengzihe Formation of Jixi, China are considered Hauterivian or Hauterivian–early Barremian in age.

グラジオラス木子茎頂からの不定はい形成と花色変異

グラジオラス木子茎頂からの不定胚培養系の確立と得られた再分化個体に生じた花色変異について検討し, 以下の結果を得た.1. 木子茎頂からの不定胚形成率は, MS培地に5mg・liter-1NAAを添加した区で最も高く51.1%であった.不定胚形成率には品種間差異が認められ, 'トパーズ', 'トラベラー'が高く'ヘクター'は低くかった.2. 不定胚由来個体からは花色変異体が得られた.花色変異はいずれも個体全体におよんでいた.花色変異の出現には品種間差異があり, 'トパーズ'を除く'トラベラー', 'ヘクター'で発生した.また花色は淡色化および濃色化の両方に変異していた.3. 'トラベラー'から得られた花色変異系統は, 原品種に比べて草丈, 花穂長, 小花, 小花数がやや小型化または減少の傾向にあった.花色変異系統を分球と木子により増殖して得られた一部の開花個体では, 原品種と同様の花色に戻る花色復帰が認められた.4. 不定胚由来個体に花色変異が認められたことから, 不定胚培養系はグラジオラスの育種に有効であることが示唆された.

ヒメノカリス（Ｈｙｍｅｎｏｃａｌｌｉｓ ｓｐｅｃｉｏｓａ Ｓａｌｉｓｂ．）の開花に及ぼす温度の影響

The growth periodicity of Hymenocallis plants grown outdoors and the effect of temperature on the initiation and development of flower buds were investigated.1. Hymenocallis bulbs have a sympodial branching system with each unit of the sympodial branch consisting of a membranous scale and about 17 foliage leaves in 1/2 alternate arrangement from the base upwards. The apex terminates in an inflorescence bearing about 5 florets.2. Shoot apices of plants grown outdoors were in the vegetative state in early October; they began to flatten and broaden in early to mid-October. Subsequently, the outer and inner tepal primordia of the first floret appear by the year's end. Further development of flower buds is resumed in late April when stamen initials appear. In early June the carpel primordia of the first floret of an inflorescence become evident. Pollen formation occurs in early or mid June and the flower blooms in early August.3. Flower formation was inhibited when plants were held at 25°C after 1 July but it was promoted when plants were transferred to 15° or 20°C. After flower buds were initiated, plants kept at 25°C flowered earlier but they had smaller florets and shorter scape length than did those held at the cooler temperatures.4. In a commercial forcing trial, flowering in late May, which is two months earlier than the natural flowering time, was attained by keeping plants at a min. of 20°C after the end of November. Moreover, by exposing plants to a photoperiod of a 16-hr day and maintaining them above 20°C from the end of September, the plants bloomed in mid-April.

Technique for Crossing Proso Millet1

Controlled crosses are needed to exploit the genetic potential of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.). Techniques used for other self‐pollinated crops resulted in low seed set. The small florets with tightly held lemma and palea make emasculation difficult prior to anthesis. In this technique the florets are mechanically stimulated by rubbing and warming them between 0800 and 0900 prior to their opening naturally. The anthers are either removed immediately or are kept moist by misting with water until they can be removed. Emasculated florets are then pollinated and a glassine bag placed on the panicle. Ten to 15 min are required to produce 2 to 5 F1 seeds. This technique yields about 80% cross‐pollinated seeds.

Investigations of angiosperms from the eocene of North America: A new Juglandaceous catkin

A new type of catkin allied with the Alfaroa—Oreomunnea—Engelhardia complex of the Juglandaceae has been recovered from the sediments of the middle Eocene Claiborne Formation in the southeastern United States. This catkin is distinct from Eokachyra (another staminate catkin from the Claiborne Formation allied with the same complex of extant genera as the new fossils) in having smaller florets, different bract morphology, possibly more floral envelope parts, and pollen decidedly different in size and morphology. This fossil inflorescence seems to be most closely allied with an extant species that is presently indigenous to southeast Asia. Variation in pollen morphology and its ramifications are considered in the new type of catkin and in Eokachyra.

Tetraploids Induced in Rice by Temperature and Colchicine Treatments1

Abstract: Naturally occurring haploid and triploid plants that arose as mutations in varieties and hybrids at the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station No. 4, Beaumont, Tex., are reported. Twenty-six tetraploid and eight tetraploid-sector plants were obtained from seed produced in panicles of the Blue Rose and Caloro varieties exposed, for certain periods, to low and high temperatures or a combination of both within 19 to 24 hours after blooming. Soaking Blue Rose seed in colchicine solutions produced three tetraploid plants in the second generation following treatment. Shoots of a haploid plant, untreated and treated in colchicine solutions, produced diploid and diploid-sector plants. Three cases in which haploid plants produced some seed are reported. Tetraploid and triploid Blue Rose and Caloro plants were not as tall, tillered less, were less fertile, and had coarser leaves and larger florets and seeds than diploid plants of these varieties; whereas, the haploid plants were completely sterile and were shorter, tillered much more, and had finer leaves and culms and smaller florets than the diploids.