Small Flocks Research Articles

Attributes of migratory goat and sheep farming and impact of some improved management strategies en-route migration in adopted flocks of Western – Himalayan region of India

Migratory pastoralism is common in Himalayas, practiced by Gaddi tribe of Himachal Pradesh. Understanding migratory system is relevant as >90% of state sheep and around 70 % goat populations is reared under this system. The study was undertaken to analyse characteristics, trends, constraints and impact assessment of improved managemental strategies enroute migration. After generation of base data, for studying the impact of improved practices and breeding management, these flocks were monitored and strategic managemental and breeding inputs were provided to these flocks throughout the year for next 3 years. Majority of the farmers belonged to medium flocks (50%), followed by small flocks (40.2%) while very few were with larger size flock (9.8%). On an average, these farmers derived more than 60% of their income of migratory goat and sheep husbandry. Farmer’s own flock was the primary source (68.4%) of breeding buck and they practice selection of male buck based on indigenous knowhow. Diseases, predators, environmental extreme, veterinary aid in high hills and marketing infrastructure were major constraints. The result of adopted flock over period of 4 year revealed that there was significant improvement in body weight, reproductive parameters and pre-weaning mortality. The study concluded that the migratory system is an integral part of hill farming and is sustainable since it is a very low input system which effectively counterbalances its constraints and makes it profitable. There is need to address concern of management during migration, develop effective extension messages and breeding plans.

Reactions of Sandhill Cranes Approaching a Marked Transmission Power Line

Abstract Sandhill cranes Antigone canadensis, formerly Grus canadensis, are of widespread management focus, particularly where collisions with power lines are an important cause of mortality. Collision mitigation focuses on marking power lines to increase visibility, but collisions persist, perhaps because power line markers are not sufficiently visible in all conditions. Our objective was to compare reaction distances and reaction behaviors during daylight when power lines are presumably more visible, and during darkness when power lines are less visible. The power line we studied was fitted with glow-in-the-dark power line markers intended to increase nocturnal visibility. We found that during daylight, flocks generally avoided the power line by climbing gradually and passed above without making sudden evasive maneuvers. During darkness, flocks, particularly small flocks, were almost equally likely to make sudden evasive maneuvers as to climb gradually. Collision monitoring on the power line we studied conducted concurrent to our study indicated that 94% of collisions occurred during darkness, linking the behaviors we observed to actual mortality. Sandhill cranes also reacted at greater distances and with fewer sudden evasive maneuvers to the glow-in-the-dark-marked power line we studied than to nearby power lines without glowing markers evaluated in a prior study, suggesting that either glowing markers, smaller gaps between markers, or both, improved sandhill cranes' ability to perceive and react to the power line we studied. By correlating behavioral observations with mortality, our study indicates that proactive low-intensity behavioral observations might be useful surrogates to reactive high-intensity carcass searches in identifying high-risk spans. This approach may also be effective for other species.

Grey Crowned Crane threat assessment around the wetlands of eastern Uganda

The Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum was uplisted to globally Endangered in 2012. There is urgent need to determine the threats they face at local levels for their conservation. I conducted formal point-count surveys around the wetlands of eastern Uganda and observed no cranes. Groups of cranes were encountered when following directions from local inhabitants. Results from a questionnaire survey suggested that cranes make use of most of the wetlands in the region, and that the birds occur in small flocks averaging 6–8 individuals. Wetland loss through farming was reported to be the main threat, but I also documented poisoning, roost disturbance, and the collection of eggs and chicks. Rigorous conservation and education programs are needed to ensure the long-term survival of cranes and storks in this region.

Visual recognition of individual conspecific males by female zebra finches, Taeniopygia guttata

The aim of this study was to determine whether visual recognition of conspecifics exists in zebra finches, and if so, whether the strength of this recognition is a function of the social relationships among flock members. To achieve this aim, we trained adult female zebra finches to indicate their preference by pecking on one of two photographs presented on a digital screen. We found that female zebra finches possessed a very good ability to recognize their mates, and a slightly lower but still good ability to recognize other, socially closely related males that were members of their own small flock. Moreover, we found that the individual integrity of the small flocks continued to be maintained, as subgroups, even after these were combined to form one large flock, indicating that zebra finches demonstrate different levels of social relationships between flock members, and that these relationships are long-lasting and stable. However, when part of a larger flock, the females were unable to recognize males that were socially distant to them.

Sex-specific mortality costs of dispersal during the post-settlement stage promote male philopatry in a resident passerine

The costs and benefits of dispersal that select for sex-biased dispersal are still poorly understood. Many studies examine fitness consequences of dispersal after first breeding, while dispersal costs are most likely paid before first breeding during the movement, settlement, and post-settlement stages. We studied survival correlates of dispersal between flock settlement and first breeding during the first winter of juvenile willow tits (Poecile montanus), a small passerine that has female-biased natal dispersal, but shows no dispersal-associated survival differences after first breeding. This resident food-hoarding species winters in small stable non-kin territorial flocks. We collected capture-recapture data by following flocks from autumn to the following spring. We compared monthly survival and return rates of juveniles that were born and recruited within the study area (philopatric juveniles) and juveniles that originated from outside the study area (immigrant juveniles). Among males, survival was highest for philopatric juveniles whereas survival of females was higher among immigrant juveniles, providing one explanation for the female-biased natal dispersal observed in the species. Philopatric males may benefit from prior residency either through increased site familiarity and knowledge of winter food resources and/or by gaining higher social ranks during flock establishment. However, rank data provided little support for the latter hypothesis. Other mechanisms such as increased ability to find high-quality flocks and mates may be important for female survival. Our results provide further evidence that dispersal costs are paid mainly before first breeding and that sex-specific costs of dispersal play a role in the evolution of sex-biased dispersal. This paper shows that female-biased dispersal can be a consequence of sex-specific costs and benefits of dispersal during the post-settlement stage of the dispersal process which is a very poorly understood stage in dispersal theory. By examining correlates of dispersal before rather than after first breeding as it is usually done, our study aids in understanding the selection pressures modifying dispersal strategies. Our results have wide applicability because there are many resident taxa similar to the willow tit (our study species) that have a settlement stage and a prolonged non-reproductive phase before their first reproduction.

Risk Assessment of Human Listeriosis from Semisoft Cheeses Made from Raw Sheep's Milk in Lazio and Tuscany (Italy).

Semisoft cheese made from raw sheep's milk is traditionally and economically important in southern Europe. However, raw milk cheese is also a known vehicle of human listeriosis and contamination of sheep cheese with Listeria monocytogenes has been reported. In the present study, we have developed and applied a quantitative risk assessment model, based on available evidence and challenge testing, to estimate risk of invasive listeriosis due to consumption of an artisanal sheep cheese made with raw milk collected from a single flock in central Italy. In the model, contamination of milk may originate from the farm environment or from mastitic animals, with potential growth of the pathogen in bulk milk and during cheese ripening. Based on the 48-day challenge test of a local semisoft raw sheep's milk cheese we found limited growth only during the initial phase of ripening (24 hours) and no growth or limited decline during the following ripening period. In our simulation, in the baseline scenario, 2.2% of cheese servings are estimated to have at least 1 colony forming unit (CFU) per gram. Of these, 15.1% would be above the current E.U. limit of 100 CFU/g (5.2% would exceed 1,000 CFU/g). Risk of invasive listeriosis per random serving is estimated in the 10-12 range (mean) for healthy adults, and in the 10-10 range (mean) for vulnerable populations. When small flocks (10-36 animals) are combined with the presence of a sheep with undetected subclinical mastitis, risk of listeriosis increases and such flocks may represent a public health risk.

Meadow up a tree: Feeding flocks with a native ash tree in the Moroccan mountains

The pastoral interest in Fraxinus dimorpha foliage from the High Atlas of Morocco was assessed both in terms of its role with regard to the feeding of small ruminant flocks and for its nutritive value. Observation, measurements, and interviews with 57 households revealed that ash trees are regularly pollarded, following very precise four-year cycles, during late August to November. Native ash tree stands are subject to characteristic shaping, which enables a continuous capability to provide fodder, and gives rise to characteristic sylvo-pastoral landscapes. A digestion trial was conducted in goats and sheep. Five two-year-old rams (19.5 ± 1 kg) and five two-year-old uncastrated bucks (22.2 ± 1.7 kg) were placed in individual metabolism cages over 18 days, and fed fresh ash tree leaves with a light dietary supplementation. The apparent digestibility coefficients between goats and sheep did not differ significantly for dry matter (69.5% versus 67.5%, respectively), organic matter (70.5% vs 68.3%), and Neutral Detergent Fibre (53.8% vs 52.3%), in contrast to crude protein (54.2% vs 45.3%, p < 0.001) and Acid Detergent Lignin (29.7 vs 26.4, p < 0.05). Due to a higher intake relative to metabolic weight (57.1 vs 47.7 gDM/kgBW0.75), goats valorize this type of forage better than sheep. It is concluded that ash tree foliage presents considerable nutritive interest in autumn when overall range forage is scarce and lacking in quality, and, hence, constitutes a useful forage resource for feeding the small ruminant flocks found in these low-input mountain livestock farming systems. Associated traditional management practices were revealed to be both technically and ecologically efficient, and should be better taken into account by policy-makers.

Hypersensitivity to Culicoides midges causing seasonal dermatitis in sheep

Culicoides midges are important as vectors of disease, as an irritant with severe effects on human outdoor activities in certain areas and as the cause of insect bite hypersensitivity in domestic animals (most notably horses). Here we report, for the first time, the confirmation of ovine hypersensitivity to Culicoides midges in Hebridean sheep suffering from seasonal allergic skin disease using intradermal allergen testing. The affected sheep formed 40% of the adults in the small flock, and this indication of a potentially high prevalence of a condition with welfare implications is of concern.

Behavioural responses of migratory shorebirds to disturbance at a high-tide roost

Many long-distance migratory shorebirds are threatened. Anthropogenic disturbance at roost sites on their non-breeding grounds might exacerbate other threats by leading to depletion of fat reserves and forcing birds away from traditional sites. We measured the response (occurrence of alarm flight and resettlement time) of roosting shorebirds knots (Calidris spp.) and sand plovers (Charadrius spp.) to anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Flight was the most common response (0.86 alarm flights h−1). The likelihood of an alarm flight was most strongly influenced by flock size and distance to the disturbance agent, smaller flocks closer to the agent being more likely to take flight. Sand plovers had shorter flight-initiation distances than knots but took longer to resettle after disturbance. Resettling duration was also influenced by time since arrival on the non-breeding grounds, being longest shortly after birds arrived. Energy budget models suggested that 10 alarm flights per day increased daily energy expenditure by 4.5–4.7% for knots and 7.5–7.8% for sand plovers. This may reduce energy reserves to levels below the threshold that can be replenished by normal intake rates and thus negatively affect survival or reproductive success. Increased disturbances may place additional and unsustainable pressures on populations that are already experiencing major declines.

Serological and molecular evidence of Q fever among small ruminant flocks in Algeria.

Q fever, a commonly reported zoonosis worldwide, is caused by infection with Coxiella burnetii, an obligate intracellular bacterium. The infection is often asymptomatic in ruminants, but it can lead to reproductive disorders with bacterial shedding into the environment. Between 2011 and 2013, a study was undertaken in small ruminant flocks in different regions of Algeria. A total of 35 flocks were visited and 227 sera and 267 genital swabs were collected from females after abortions or the lambing period to investigate Q fever infection. Indirect ELISA was used to detect specific antibodies against C. burnetii and real-time PCR for detecting bacterial DNA. Our survey indicated that 58% (95% CI=40-76%) of flocks had at least one positive animal (17 seropositive flocks) and individual seroprevalence was estimated at 14.1% (95% CI=11.8-16.4%) (32 seropositive animals). Bacterial excretion was observed in 21 flocks (60%), and 57 females showed evidence of C. burnetii shedding (21.3%). These results suggest that C. burnetii distribution is high at the flock level and that seropositive and infected (shedder) animals can be found all over the country. Further studies are needed in other regions and on different animal species to better understand the distribution and incidence of Q fever, as well as human exposure, and to develop an adequate prophylaxis program.

Constraints to Hamari sheep farming under range conditions in Darfur and Kordofan Regions of Western Sudan.

The study was conducted to identify the major production constraints of Hamari sheep in Darfur and Kordofan Regions of Western Sudan. A structured questionnaire was administered to 128 farmers in Darfur and Kordofan. Feed shortages, prevalence of diseases and parasites, and predation were more severe in Darfur than Kordofan (P < 0.05). Thefts were ranked higher by farmers using the sedentary system compared to those using semi-nomadic system (P < 0.05). Water shortage was ranked higher by farmers with small flocks, large flocks, semi-nomadic and sedentary husbandry system in Kordofan than their counterparts in Darfur Region (P < 0.05). Farmers practising semi-nomadic husbandry system and sedentary system in Darfur region ranked diseases, parasites and predation higher than those practising semi-nomadic and sedentary system in Kordofan region (P < 0.05). Feed shortage was ranked higher as a challenge by farmers practising semi-nomadic system in Darfur Region than those practising semi-nomadic system in Kordofan Region (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that the severity of challenges facing Hamari sheep producers vary with flock size, region and production system used.

Amorphous Solid Simulation and Trial Fabrication of the Organic Field-Effect Transistor of Tetrathienonaphthalenes Prepared by Using Microflow Photochemical Reactions: A Theoretical Calculation-Inspired Investigation.

The p-type organic semiconductor (OSC) material tetrathieno[2,3-a:3',2'-c:2″,3″-f:3‴,2‴-h]naphthalene (2TTN) and its alkyl-substituted derivatives C(n)-2TTNs (n = 6, 8, and 10) have been developed based on the results of theoretical calculation-inspired investigation. A hole mobility for amorphous C(n)-2TTNs (10(-2)-10(-3) cm(2) V(-1) s(-1)) was accurately predicted by using a novel statistical method in which the geometric mean of the mobilities for many individual small molecular flocks in an amorphous solid was obtained by using molecular mechanical molecular dynamics simulations and quantum chemical calculations. The simulation also suggests that upon increasing the length of alkyl chains in C(n)-2TTNs the mobilities become smaller as a consequence of a decrease in transfer integral values. C(n)-2TTNs are synthesized in a microflow reactor through photoreactions of the corresponding precursors. C(n)-2TTNs are then utilized in the fabrication of organic field-effect transistors (OFETs). Although spin-coated thin films of C(n)-2TTNs are crystalline, the hole mobilities (10(-2)-10(-3) cm(2) V(-1) s(-1)) of trial OFETs decrease upon elongation of the alkyl chains. This finding parallels the results of theoretical simulation. The simulation method for amorphous solids developed in this effort should become a useful tool in studies aimed at designing new OSC materials.

Vaccination control programs for multiple livestock host species: an age-stratified, seasonal transmission model for brucellosis control in endemic settings.

BackgroundBrucella melitensis causes production losses in ruminants and febrile disease in humans in Africa, Central Asia, the Middle East and elsewhere. Although traditionally understood to affect primarily sheep and goats, it is also the predominant Brucella species that affects cows in some endemic areas. Despite this, no licensed vaccine is available specifically for use against B. melitensis in cows. The mainstay of most control programs is vaccination of sheep and goats with a live vaccine, Rev-1. The aim of this study was to investigate how critical vaccination of cows might be, in order to control B. melitensis on a mixed sheep-and-cattle farm.MethodsA dynamic, differential-equation, age-structured, seasonal model with births and deaths, was used to investigate whether vaccination of both sheep and cattle had an impact on time to elimination of brucellosis on an individual mixed species farm, when compared to vaccination of sheep only. The model was a Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Recovered-Susceptible (SEIRS) model with an additional compartment for Persistently Infected (PI) individuals. Transmission parameters were fit based on a nation-wide probabilistic seroprevalence survey in Jordan.ResultsThe model predicted that it would take 3.5 years to eliminate brucellosis (to less than 0.5 % of adult sheep seropositive as a result of infection) on a mixed-species B. melitensis-endemic farm with the median field-study seroprevalence, following vaccination of both sheep and cattle, assuming a vaccine effectiveness of 80 %. Limiting the vaccination to sheep only, increased the time to 16.8 years. Sensitivity analysis showed that the finding that vaccination of cattle was of significant importance, was robust. Vaccine effectiveness had a strong influence on time to elimination.ConclusionsIn the absence of further data, vaccination of cattle should be considered essential in Brucella-endemic settings where mixed small ruminant and cattle flocks predominate. Further evidence that Brucella melitensis predominates in cattle in Jordan, as opposed to Brucella abortus, is needed in order to validate this model. The results may be applicable to other mixed-species settings with similar livestock management practices. These methods may be applied to other pathogens affecting multiple livestock species or with seasonal transmission.

Seroprevalence of Schmallenberg virus infection in sheep and goats flocks in Germany, 2012-2013.

Summary Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a member of the family Bunyaviridae and mainly affects ruminants. It is transmitted by biting midges, first and foremost Culicoides spp., and causes congenital malformations reflected in arthrogryposis–hydranencephaly (AH) syndrome. The aim of this study was to collect data on the emergence of SBV as a new arthropod‐borne disease introduced into Europe in 2011. Germany was located in the core region of the 2011/2012 epidemic. Following two seroprevalence studies in the north‐west of Germany in 2012, this study focused on the epidemiology and distribution of SBV throughout 130 small ruminant flocks in the whole country. Blood samples were obtained of 30 animals per flock and a SBV‐specific questionnaire was used to collect operating data of the farms. The median within‐herd seroprevalence for all 130 flocks tested was 53.3% with a total range from 0% to 100%. The median within‐herd seroprevalence for goats was 30% [interquartile range (IQR): 40.3%] and 57% for sheep (IQR: 43.3%). Small ruminant flocks kept permanently indoors or housed overnight had a significantly lower seroprevalence than flocks kept permanently outdoors. In addition, this study revealed a significantly lower seroprevalence in the north‐east of Germany. These results show that small ruminants in Germany are still at risk of contracting new SBV infections following incomplete seroconversion of flocks especially in the north‐east of Germany. This might contribute to SBV becoming enzootic in central and northern Europe. Furthermore, the survey revealed that housing animals at least during mating and early pregnancy may reduce the risk of new SBV infections and may thus be an option to reduce losses as long as there is no licensed vaccine available on the German market.

The Marin County Livestock Protection Program: 15 Years in Review

Author(s): Larson, Stephanie; McGranahan, Devan A.; Timm, Robert M. | Abstract: In 2001, Marin County, California, replaced its USDA Wildlife Services (WS) cooperative predator damage management program with a county-run program that emphasized non-lethal methods for preventing and controlling coyote predation on sheep. This new “Livestock Protection Program” cost-shared with livestock producers’ efforts to improve fencing, obtain and maintain guard animals, and other such non-lethal methods, and initially it compensated producers for documented losses to predators. We surveyed sheep producers in Marin County in an effort to review the program over the past 15 years, evaluating the program in relation to livestock production, economics, predation management, and other measures of producer satisfaction. Lack of standardized data collection during the current program complicates its evaluation; however, from available information, we conclude the number of sheep and lambs are being produced in Marin County has continued to decline; some producers left the sheep business and other who remain graze less acreage with smaller flocks; predation by coyotes remains a high concern to producers; and most producers are dissatisfied with the Livestock Protection Program.

Antimicrobial resistance in Enterococcus spp. isolated from laying hens of backyard poultry floks

Enterococci belonging to human and animal gastrointestinal flora are widely-distributed in the environment. They are opportunistic bacteria that can cause severe infections, with the ability to acquire, express and transfer antimicrobial resistance. The aim of the present study was to investigate antimicrobial resistance profiles of Enterococcus spp. strains isolated from cloacal swabs of laying hens of small backyard flocks. Susceptibility to 21 antimicrobial agents was tested by the disc diffusion method in 115 Enterococcus spp. strains. Vancomycin and ampicillin minimum inhibitory concentrations and high-level aminoglycoside resistance tests were also performed. Isolates showed resistance mainly to aminoglycosides, eritromycin, fluoroquinoles, tetracycline and nitrofurantoin. 19 (16.5%) isolates showed a high level of resistance to streptomycin, but no high level resistance to gentamycin. No significant resistance was detected for vancomycin. Several strains (45; 39.1%) showed combined resistance to macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramin B. 61 (53%) isolates were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR) and 6 (5.2%) strains as possibly extensively drug-resistant (XDR). E. faecium was the most prevalent antimicrobial resistant species, followed by E. faecalis and E. durans. The results show that the risk of dissemination of antimicrobial resistant enterococci is related not only to the birds of large commercial flocks, but also to the birds of small backyard flocks. Thus, laying hens of hobby flocks, which share the outside environment with people, could represent a hazard for public health by providing a conduit for the entrance of resistance genes into the community.

Abortion and various associated risk factors in small ruminants in Algeria

Identification of the causes of abortion among the huge population of small ruminants in Algeria (≈31 millions heads), is an important task for the control of livestock productivity and viability scourges to the small ruminants industry. Optimal production and utilization is constrained by a number of factors: disease, poor feeding and low management skills. Therefore, in the present study the prevalence of abortion in Algerian small ruminant’s flocks was estimated and its possible association was correlated with infectious (PPR, BT and Brucellosis seropositivity) and managerial (flock size, grazing system, type of farming, and contact with other flocks) risk factors. The present study showed an overall flock prevalence of small ruminant’s abortion as 75.33% (113/150) [95% CI 71.72–78.94%]. The risk factor analysis using multivariable logistic regression recognized the north-western and the steppe region as well as PPR positivity as a risk factor for abortion in Algerian small ruminant’s flocks. The odds of flock abortion was 11.47 [95% CI 2.39–54.88; P=0.002] and 10.31 [95% CI 1.28–82.88; P=0.028] times higher in north-western and steppe regions respectively compared to other region. Also the presence of PPRV infection in small ruminant flocks amplified the odds by 6 times [95% CI 2.221–17.427; P=0.001].Surprisingly, the univariate analysis for the other risk factors associated with abortions in Algerian small ruminant flocks indicated no statistically significant links with bluetongue (P=1.000) and brucellosis seropositivity (P=0.334). Flock size (P=0.574), type of farming (P=0.443), grazing system (P=0.117) and contact with other flocks (P=0.245) was also not statistically significant. Our results revealed that abortion in small ruminants is a challenge to farmers and PPR was chiefly linked to it. Therefore an effective vaccination and control programme is advocated for small ruminants in Algeria.

Range expansion of the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata (Aves: Anseriformes: Anatidae) to the Lena River catchment, Siberia

Recently the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata was observed beyond its known range of 60°N as pairs, individuals and small flocks along the upper and middle reaches of the Aldan River and its tributaries from spring to late autumn. Pairs and solitary males (all probably vagrant) were also recorded as far North as 61°-63°N. This species encounters appropriate habitats within the Prilenskoe Plateau, the Aldanskoe High Plateau, and the Yudomo-Mayiskoe High Plateau in the Lena River catchment, and can potentially breed within the extended range if the number in the Amur River basin increases .

Nasal Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus : Frequency and Antibiotic Resistance in Healthy Ruminants.

Background:Staphylococcus aureus is a significant pathogen that can colonize the nares of different animals, causing a wide range of infections in various hosts.Objectives:We intended to determine the prevalence of S. aureus in the nasal cavity of healthy ruminants and also to investigate the presence of antibiotic resistance genes.Materials and Methods:In the present study, healthy cattle (n = 79), sheep (n = 78) and goats (n = 44) were screened for nasal carriage of S. aureus by the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Staphylococcus aureus isolates were further assessed for the presence of blaZ (encoding penicillin resistance), mecA (encoding methicillin resistance), tetK and tetM (encoding tetracycline resistance), and ermA and ermC (encoding macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B resistance) genes.Results:The proportion of S. aureus-positive nasal swabs from cattle, sheep and goats were four (5.06%), 11 (14.1%) and 11 isolates (25%), respectively. The blaZ gene was detected in 20 out of 26 S. aureus isolates (76.9%), including four cattle (100%), nine sheep (81.8%) and seven goats (63.6%). Two of the four cattle isolates possessing the blaZ gene also had the tetK gene. Of the nine sheep isolates harboring the blaZ gene, one possessed the mecA and tetK genes together. Of the seven goat isolates with blaZ gene, one harbored the tetM gene. None of the S. aureus isolates were positive for the ermA and ermC genes.Conclusions:In contrast to cattle, S. aureus is frequently present in the nose of sheep and goats, which may represent the primary reservoir of S. aureus in small ruminant flocks. This study also showed that nasal isolates of S. aureus from healthy ruminants might be a potential reservoir of antimicrobial-resistance.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Associated with Brucellosis in Livestock Owners in Jordan.

We evaluated livestock owners' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding brucellosis in Jordan. A questionnaire was administered and biological samples were examined to verify the serological status of animals. Seroprevalence estimates indicated that 18.1% (95% CI: 11–25.3) of cattle herds and 34.3% (95% CI: 28.4–40.4) of small ruminant flocks were seropositive. The results showed that 100% of the interviewed livestock keepers were aware of brucellosis: 87% indicated a high risk of infection if unpasteurized milk is consumed and 75% indicated a high risk if unpasteurized dairy products are consumed. Awareness of the risk of infection through direct contact with fetal membranes or via physical contact with infected livestock is considerably lower, 19% and 13%, respectively. These knowledge gaps manifest in a high frequency of high-risk practices such as assisting in animal parturition (62%), disposing aborted fetuses without protective gloves (71.2%) or masks (65%), and not boiling milk before preparation of dairy products (60%). When brucellosis is suspected, basic hygiene practices are often disregarded and suspect animals are freely traded. Public health education should be enhanced as the disease is likely to remain endemic in the ruminant reservoir as long as a suitable compensation program is not established and trust on available vaccines is regained.