Small Flocks Research Articles

Retrospective analysis of the frequency and contributory causes of ascites syndrome in broilers in South Banat

Ascites syndrome is a multi-factorial, noncontagious disease of broilers. Chickens selected for rapid growth have a high basal metabolism and consequently increased demands for oxygen. Poor environmental conditions and other unfavourable factors which reduce the amount of available oxygen cause hypoxia, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular dilation and right heart failure, which results in generalized passive hyperaemia of organs and ascites as the most striking gross pathology manifestation. The aim of the study was to investigate, retrospectively, the frequency of the disease in a selected district with widespread poultry production and to identify main factors that contribute to the outbreak of the disease. In the period from 2011 to 2017 ascites syndrome was diagnosed by post mortem examination of chickens in 12 out of 91 flocks with health disorders, examined in the Veterinary Specialized Institute "Pancevo". Based on anamnesis, signs of disease and pathomorphological findings, poor environmental conditions and inadequate feed were identified as main contributory factors. In the majority of cases ascites syndrome occurred in small flocks, raised in unsuitable environmental conditions.

Risk factors associated with seropositivity to Toxoplasma among sheep and goats in Northern Iraq.

Serum samples from 423 small ruminants (335 sheep and 97 goats) from 72 farms in 6 districts in the province of Dohuk, north Iraq, were tested for the presence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii using a latex agglutination test (Latex) and an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). When the test results were interpreted in parallel, 42.1% (95% confidence interval (CI): 36.7, 47.7) of sheep and 36.1% (95% CI: 26.6, 46.5) of goats were found to have antibodies against Toxoplasma. A multivariable logistic regression model was developed to determine the risk factors for Toxoplasma seropositivity in small ruminant flocks. Factors which increased the risk of infection included the presence of cats near the feed of animals (Odds ratio (OR) = 6.3; 95% CI 1.6, 24.6) and a history of abortions in sheep in the preceding 12 months (OR = 13.4; 95% CI 2.1; 86.7). For every ten goats aborting in the preceding 12 months the odds of seropositivity increased significantly (OR = 6.7; 95% CI 1.3; 32.9). Results of the regression model indicate that for every 1000 Iraqi Dinars (~0.85 USD) spent by the farmers on prophylactic treatment in their flocks the odds of Toxoplasma seropositivity decreased significantly (OR = 0.94; 95% CI 0.90, 0.98). This study contributes to the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis in small ruminants in northern Iraq.

Zagadnienie migracji w nauczaniu Kościoła katolickiego

The phenomenon of migrating the population – migration of people (Latin: migratio) has been known since time immemorial. Its purpose is to change the place of stay of an individual or group. Displacements are historical, cultural, social, political, but also religious. The purpose of migration is to change the place of residence for various reasons, including for economic, political and social reasons. The Word of God states that “the earth belongs to me, and you are the strangers and settlers with Me” (Lev 25:23). The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Lumen Gentium (n. 9) teaches that “this people, though it does not currently include all people, and sometimes even turns out to be a small flock, is after all a powerful germ of unity, hope and salvation for the whole human race”. Also today, the Church, in response to the current international – political and economic migration situation, takes a stand in this matter. The article presents the issue of migration in teaching the Catholic Church also as a social problem. The author, striving for maximum reliability and showing the merits of the issue, considered the analytical method to undertake analytical and critical research of sources, referring to conciliar teaching and statements by Pope John Paul II and his successors on migration, emphasizing the moral and social aspect of this phenomenon.

A Study on Annual Expenditure and Income from Goat Farming in Kerala

A study on goat farmers from three districts of Kerala viz., Kannur, Kozhikode and Malappuram districts was carried out to study the annual expenditure and income from goat farming under field condition in Northern Kerala. Study revealed that small flock size (16-45) got the highest net return per goat per annum. The net return worked out to be Rs. 1748, 2374, 2960, 2258 and 1602 per goat /annum, respectively. The net profit (per goat/annum) increases and reaches a maximum point and again decreases with the increase of flock sizes due to inadequate nutrition and management practices by larger goat keepers. B:C ratio also showed a similar pattern of change with flock size. Selling of goats was the major source of income followed by milk, manures and urine. In the present study, shrinking of grazing resources, lack of good quality breeding stocks improper management practices, high and labour cost were found to be the major constraints in making the goat farming more remunerative. Therefore, rearing of goat cannot sustain only on grazing resources and cut fodder and needs to switch over to systematic commercial goat farming systems via., semi-intensive / intensive system of management. Recurring cost need to be curtailed by adopting mechanization and modernization especially in large farms and also cultivating fodder and formulating and preparing concentrate in the farm itself.

Evaluating response distances to develop buffer zones for staging terns

ABSTRACTBuffer zones, calculated by flight‐initiation distance (FID), are often used to reduce anthropogenic disturbances to wildlife, but FID can vary significantly across life‐history stages. We examined the behavioral effect of potential natural (gulls and shorebirds) and anthropogenic (pedestrians) disturbance sources to staging roseate (Sterna dougallii) and common tern (S. hirundo) flocks from July to September in 2014 and 2015 at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA. We estimated the proportion of the flock exhibiting different responses to potential disturbance sources as a function of distance, flock size, percent roseate terns, and local disturbance rates, using Bayesian zero‐and‐one inflated beta regression. The proportion of tern flocks responding to the presence of shorebirds by flying was low (0.01 ± 0.001 [SE]) and did not vary by distance or other covariates, whereas the proportion flying in response to gulls increased as distance decreased, with smaller flocks, and with flocks with a larger proportion of roseate terns being more sensitive to gull presence. Prolonged flight response rapidly increased in probability from 0.0 to as much as 1.0 as distance from pedestrians to the flock decreased from 100 m and was much more likely with smaller flocks. Pedestrian activity levels also had an effect on flock responses; those engaged in active behaviors such as jogging were more likely to cause flushing than those engaged in passive behaviors. Terns seemed to view pedestrians as more of a threat than shorebirds and gulls, even though gulls are frequent kleptoparasites of terns. Pedestrians >120 m from a tern flock generally elicited the same probability of flight response as shorebirds and gulls. We recommend managers maintain anthropogenic disturbance levels at or below the intensity of those from natural sources at sites where recreation and wildlife values are both important. Because staging tern flocks may use a variety of areas within a site, we recommend instituting a 100‐m buffer around areas potentially used by staging flocks at Cape Cod, where we studied every location roseate terns are known to use in large numbers. For other sites used by mixed‐species tern flocks, we recommend the use of our field and analytical methods to develop appropriate buffer distances that will keep pedestrians far enough away to reduce the likelihood of flight and other non‐locomotive anti‐predator behaviors. These buffer zones will also benefit other species sensitive to human activity. © 2018 The Wildlife Society.

Current and future goat production in Jembrana Regency, Bali Province

This study was undertaken to establish a database for improving goat production in Bali. A survey was conducted from January to June 2014 on 68 farmers integrated with farm commodities, owning a total of 258 goats in Mendoyo District. Data on flock dynamics were 49 kidding occurrences in 2014 delivered 67 kids; 67% were single born, 29% were twins and 4% were triplets/quadruplets. The kids were a mixture of Gembrong, Benggala, Kacang, Etawah, and PE that had a 24% mortality rate. Litter size was on average 1.37 kids from does with 1st to 6th parity. Kids were housed in battery systems and fed fresh roughages with cut and carry feeding systems. The average bodyweights of female weaners 22.9±1.6 kg were significantly lower (P<0.01) than of male weaners 29.8±1.9 kg at day 135. This growth was supported by the abundance of available feed, and the housing used meant low incidence of parasites as indicated by FAMACHA© scores which were generally low (P<0.01). Fourteen goats were sold for IDR 22 M. Smallholder farmers in Mendoyo District reared goats in small flocks as the farmers had just re-started rearing goats again resulting in inefficient goat production, particularly when labour costs were included.

Gull attacks on migrating birds at Ada Island (S Montenegro)

Abstract Migration poses a high risk to birds. Crossing of large bodies of water is especially demanding for land birds. One of the dangers faced by migrants are opportunistic predators like gulls. Most gulls Laridae are generalist predators with omnivorous diets. Attacking on migrating birds was investigated during ground observations of bird migration at Ada Island (S Montenegro) between 17 Mar and 10 Apr 2015. We recorded 20 attacks on 22 individuals of six species and on one unidentified passerine. In four instances gulls attacked birds of prey, in two Hoopoe Upupa epops and in 16 passerines. Except for two cases when small flocks of two birds were attacked, gulls attacked individuals migrating singly. Considering our data around one percent of passerines migrating during the day across the southern Adriatic Sea can expect to be attacked by gulls. This percentage can be as high as 9.5% for passerines migrating singly.

The origin and future of an endangered crater lake endemic; phylogeography and ecology of Oreochromis hunteri and its invasive relatives

Cichlids of the genus Oreochromis (“Tilapias”) are intensively used in aquaculture around the world. In many cases, when “Tilapia” were introduced for economic reasons to catchments that were home to other, often endemic, Oreochromis species, the loss of native species followed. Oreochromis hunteri is an endemic species of Crater Lake Chala on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro and is part of a small species flock in the upper Pangani drainage system of Tanzania. We identified three native and three invasive Oreochromis species in the region. Reconstructing their phylogeography, we found that O. hunteri is closely related to, but distinct from the other members of the upper Pangani flock. However, we found a second, genetically and phenotypically distinct Oreochromis species in Lake Chala whose origin we cannot fully resolve. Our ecological and ecomorphological investigations revealed that the endemic O. hunteri is currently rare in the lake, outnumbered by each of three invasive cichlid species. It is mitochondrially, phenotypically and trophically distinct from all others. The occurrence of the formerly abundant O. hunteri in such small numbers, its narrow habitat restriction and its limited morphological variability suggest recent population decline and loss of niche breadth in this critically endangered endemic cichlid species.

Species of Mycoplasma causing contagious agalactia in small ruminants in Northwest Iran.

Contagious agalactia (CA) is a serious disease of small ruminants that occurs in many countries, and is usually characterized by mastitis, arthritis, keratoconjunctivitis, pleuropneumonia, and septicemia. Mycoplasma agalactiae (Ma) is the main causative agent in sheep and goats but other pathogens including Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri (Mmc, which incorporates the former M. mycoides subsp. mycoides Large Colony type), Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum (Mcc), and Mycoplasma putrefaciens (Mp) might be involved. They are all usually associated with infections in goats and may cause similar clinical signs. A total of 116 sheep and 16 goats suffering from the acute form of the disease were included in this study. They were recruited following a number of outbreaks suspected to be CA in the Ardebil province of Iran. Milk, lachrymal or synovial fluid were collected exclusively from the affected animals in order to identify the pathogen involved. Of the 132 collected samples, 33 (25%) were positive for Mycoplasma species by culture in PPLO broth and agar. The polymerase chain reaction followed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR/DGGE) method identified 18 (12 sheep and 6 goats) of the 33 Mycoplasma positive samples with mixed Mycoplasma population. In particular, 25 Ma (47.2%), 23 Mp (43.4%), 4 Mcc (7.5%), and 1 Mmc (1.9%) were identified. This confirms that the several Mycoplasma species rather than the Ma only are in circulation, and are able to cause CA in sheep and goats in Iran. This is the first report on the isolation and identification of Mp, Mmc and Mcc in infected small ruminant flocks in Iran.

Diet and feeding behavior of the critically endangered Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) in a nonnative urban environment

ABSTRACT This is the first empirical ecological study on the critically endangered Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea) in a nonnative urban habitat of Hong Kong, southern China. The exotic Hong Kong population creates a conservation paradox in which efforts toward protecting the endangered species would conflict with the preservation of recipient communities and habitats. The diet and feeding ecology of Yellow-crested Cockatoo were investigated to better understand the interaction between the exotic population and its inhabiting urban environment. The results indicated that the cockatoos mainly exploited 11 plant species and 4 food types, most of which were exotic plant species. They had a moderate Levin's niche breadth of 0.41, suggesting that the birds were generalist feeders with flexible diet in a nonnative urban environment. They preferred to feed solitary or in small flocks, consistent with the low conspecific attraction rate in feeding. Conspecific attraction might increase the foraging eff...

Variations in some haemato-biochemical markers from a small flock of free ranging Nguni, Boer and Non-descript goats during late gestation and early lactation periods

This study aimed to assess the influence of genotype and physiological status on blood metabolites of Nguni (10), Boer (10) and Non-descript (10) goats during late gestation and early lactation periods. Blood samples were collected and analysed using standard methods. The result revealed that, Nguni goat had higher (P Lass Than 0.05) mean values of red cell counts (13.37 x1011/L), haemoglobin (9.07 g/dL) and creatine kinase (269.54 U/L) compared to Boer (9.96 x 1011/L, 7.94 g/ dL and 132.16 U/L) and Non-descript (12.98 x 1011 /L, 7.85 g/ dL and 143.50 U/L) goats, respectively. The Nguni goat also had higher mean values of glucose (3.38 mmol/L) and urea content (5.51 mmol/L) compared to Boer goats (2.96 mmol/L and 4.45 mmol/L) and Non-descript (2.50 mmol/L and 3.90 mmol/L). There was higher mean values of red cell counts (14.44 x 1011 /L), haemoglobin (8.57 g/dL), glucose (3.12 mmol/L), sodium (141.74 mmol/L) and calcium content (2.37 mmol/L) during late gestation compared to early lactation (9.77 x 1011/ L, 8.00 g /dL, 2.77 mmol/L, 137.37 mmol/L and 2.23 mmol/L) period. It was concluded that, genotypes and physiological status had influence on blood metabolites of goats.

Seeing Raw Fibers: Collaborating with Fiber Farmers to Develop Tacit Knowledge in a Fiber Sorting, Grading, and Classing Apprenticeship

In an effort to dig deeper into slow fashion in a local context, this case study research draws attention to the quality of raw fibers to inform clothing and textile design practices. A unique standardized system of sorting, grading, and classing raw fibers is developing in the United States to help fiber farmers with small flocks, and a variety of fiber animals such as sheep, alpacas, and goats. The system aims to help farmers learn about fiber quality, develop higher quality products, and earn more sustainable incomes for their farm businesses. This research is an outcome of taking Basic and Advanced Fiber Sorting, Grading, and Classing courses, and doing the Fiber Sorting, Grading, and Classing apprenticeship. It uses Actor Network theory as a framework to outline the practice-based approach that requires continuous “reflection-in-action” with a variety of natural fibers. The objectives of this study were to (1) gain hands-on experience sorting and grading raw animal fibers sourced directly from farmers, and (2) obtain feedback from a Master fiber mentor to learn from the process. This study presents results of completing approximately 30% of the apprenticeship program with over 70 alpaca, wool, and mohair fleeces from five fiber farms during Winter 2016, Spring, and Summer 2017. A majority of the fleeces, 60, were sorted in direct collaboration with a fellow fiber apprentice who is an alpaca farmer. The accuracy of sorting and grading was 73% and the process led to tacit knowledge with natural fibers. This study presents an Actor Network Theory analysis diagram to visualize the fiber apprenticeship process. Overall, this study provides deeper insight into assessing fiber quality to determine optimal clothing and textile designs for slow fashion localism.

The Prevalence and Etiology of Subclinical Mastitis in Sheep and Goats

From September 2016 to August 2017, four hundred and twenty four milk samples were collected from mammary halves of 212 apparently healthy lactating animals (108 ewes and 104 does) from small private flocks in different localities at Sharkia Governorate. All samples were investigated by California mastitis test (CMT) and bacteriological examination to determine prevalence and etiology of subclinical mastitis (SCM) in sheep and goats and to estimate the mean somatic cell count (SCC) of infected milk samples with different pathogens. The prevalence rates of SCM using CMT were 44 (40.7%) in ewes [59 milk samples, (27.3%)] and 50 (48.1%) in does [62 milk samples, (29.8%)]. Furthermore, out of ewes’ and does’ milk samples examined by bacteriological culture 54 (25.0%) and 56 (26.9%) samples were bacteriologically positive, respectively. The isolated bacterial causing SCM in ewes’ milk samples were E. coli (44.4%), S. aureus (38.9%), Streptococcus spp. (27.8%), coagulase negative Staphylococci (26.0%), Citrobacter spp. (3.7%) and Enterobacter spp. (1.9%). The identified isolates from does’ milk samples were S. aureus (46.4%), E. coli (26.8%), Streptococcus spp. (25.0%), coagulase negative Staphylococci (19.6%), Citrobacter spp. (5.4%) and Enterobacter spp. (3.6%). The geometric mean of SCC of milk samples harbored major pathogens was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those harbored minor pathogens. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was applied on a total of 26 isolates from the most recovered species associated with mastitic milk samples of ewes and does. Suspected S. aureus, E. coli, Strep. agalactiae, Strep. dysagalactiae, and Strep. uberis isolates showed characteristic bands at 270 bp, 366 bp, 487 bp, 279 bp, and 723 bp which were specific for the used genes, respectively. In conclusion: a great attention should be directed to the early diagnosis of SCM in ewes and does.

Outbreaks of abortions by Coxiella burnetii in small ruminant flocks and a longitudinal serological approach on archived bulk tank milk suggest Q fever emergence in Central Portugal.

Q fever is a worldwide zoonotic infectious disease caused by Coxiella burnetii and sheep and goats are known to be the main reservoir for human infection. This study describes the epidemiological and laboratory findings of C.burnetii outbreaks affecting sheep and goat flocks and also provides the results of a prospective serosurvey in bulk tank milk samples to assess C.burnetii circulation in a population of sheep living in close contact to the human population in Central Portugal. In the epizooties, C.burnetii was identified in tissues of the resulting abortions by qPCR. As for the serological survey, 10.2% (95%CI: 4.5-19.2) of the 78 bulk tank milk samples collected in 2015 presented IgG antibodies against C.burnetii. The same farms were visited and sampled in 2016 and 25.6% (95%CI: 16.4-36.8) were positive. This steep increase in the number of anti-C.burnetii farms between the 2015 and 2016 collections showed to be statistically significant (p=0.020) and is strongly suggestive of Q fever emergence in Central Portugal. Measures on animal health and on disease spread control to the human population should be considered.

Migration departure strategies of shorebirds at a final pre-breeding stopover site

BackgroundDeparture decisions and behaviors of migratory birds at stopover sites are expected to maximize fitness by trade-offs among avoiding predators, optimizing refueling (energy) capacity, and matching other life-history events. We predict that species with different body sizes and migratory destinations will exhibit different behaviors when departing from the same stopover site. We also predict that with strong time constraint at the final pre-breeding stopover site, departure decisions may be less sensitive to exogenous factors, such as wind condition, compared to other stopover or nonbreeding sites.MethodsWe recorded migratory departures of four shorebird species, i.e. Eurasian Curlew (Numenius arquata), Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica), Great Knot (Calidris tenuirostris), and Grey Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), at Yalujiang Estuary Wetlands in China, a final pre-breeding stopover site in the northern Yellow Sea, from 2011 to 2014. We compared flock sizes, departure time and departure directions between species, and investigated the effects of tide and weather conditions (rain and ground wind speed and direction) on the departure decision of shorebirds.ResultsWe found that larger species departed in smaller flocks and were more variable in daily departure time. Departure trajectory of all four species appeared to be influenced by coastal topography. With the east–west coastline and intertidal mudflat on the south, birds exhibited westward or eastward deflection from the shortest migratory routes. Bar-tailed Godwit was the only species that deviated to the southeast and did not climb over the land. Birds avoided departure during precipitation, while their departure was not related to ground wind benefit or tidal condition.ConclusionsBody size among species, which influences their vulnerability to predators, might be important in shaping shorebird departure strategies. Diverse departure directions could be the result of different wind use tactics in climbing stage. Narrow optimal time window of breeding might lead to reduced flexibility in departure date at a final pre-breeding site. Both endogenous and exogenous are important in shaping departure behaviors and decisions.

Factors influencing animal-source food consumption in Timor-Leste

Poor dietary quality is an underlying contributor to the high rates of maternal and child undernutrition in Timor-Leste. The majority of households own livestock: however, the consumption of domestic animal-source food (ASF) is low, and there are few reports of the utilisation of non-domesticated species. This mixed-methods study was conducted in three villages from mid-2015 to mid-2017. Two hundred and three households with children under 24 months were enrolled in the quantitative study of maternal and child dietary diversity. To explore factors affecting household ASF consumption, 12 key informants were recruited for in-depth interviews and 312 participants, mostly mothers and fathers of young children, for focus group discussions. Participants expressed a desire to consume more ASF. Barriers to ASF consumption include having low income or limited income streams, high levels of small livestock morbidity and mortality leading to small or unstable flock or herd sizes, reserving livestock for sale and ceremonies, and living far from forested areas or where hunting is not allowed. Factors that enable greater ASF consumption include villages being located near forested areas with wild animal populations, those that observe a large number of ceremonies of long duration, households with a greater number of small livestock, and where women are able to make autonomous decisions about livestock assets. Findings suggest that policies and programs designed to achieve sustainable improvements in household nutrition would include a focus on women and improving the health and production of small livestock species frequently utilised by households.

Biosecurity Assessment and Seroprevalence of Respiratory Diseases in Backyard Poultry Flocks Located Close to and Far from Commercial Premises.

Raising backyard chickens is an ever-growing hobby in the United States. These flocks can be a substrate for respiratory disease amplification and transmission to commercial facilities. Five hundred fifty-four chickens from 41 backyard flocks were sampled in this study. ELISA kits were used to detect antibodies against avian influenza (AI), infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT), Newcastle disease (ND), infectious bronchitis (IB), Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT), Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), and Mycoplasma synoviae (MS). All visited flock owners answered a biosecurity questionnaire that assessed biosecurity measures. The questionnaire revealed that backyard poultry owners lack simple biosecurity measures such as use of dedicated shoes, their chicken sources are unreliable, and few of them benefit from veterinary oversight. Only one flock had a clear vaccination history against ND and IB. ORT, ND, IB, MS, MG, and ILT were the most seroprevalent in backyard poultry flocks with 97% (41/42), 77.5% (31/40), 75% (30/40), 73% (31/42), 69% (29/42), and 45% (19/42), respectively. The vaccinated flock was not considered in these calculations. When examining the distance between backyard flocks and the nearest commercial poultry facility, ND and MG were significantly more likely to be found in backyard flocks close to (<4 miles) whereas ORT was significantly more likely in backyard chickens located far from (>4 miles) commercial poultry. Birds purchased directly from National Poultry Improvement Plan hatcheries showed a reduced ND, MG, and MS antibody prevalence. Wearing dedicated shoes decreased MS antibody-positive birds. Finally, history of wild bird contact had a clear effect on an increased seroprevalence of NDV and MG. Serological results suggest that backyard poultry flocks have the potential to serve as a reservoir or amplifier for poultry respiratory diseases. The information generated in this project should direct extension efforts toward emphasizing the importance of small flock biosecurity and chick acquisition sources.

Resistance delaying strategies on UK sheep farms: A cost benefit analysis

UK guidelines for the sustainable control of parasites in sheep (SCOPS) were formulated with the primary aim of delaying development of anthelmintic resistance (AR) on UK sheep farms. Promoting their use requires the engagement and commitment of stakeholders. An important driver for behavioural change in sheep farmers is evidence of economic benefits. A recent evaluation of SCOPS guidance in practice demonstrated a significant reduction in anthelmintic use, suggesting economic benefits through a direct reduction in product and labour costs. However, in order to maintain production, a range of alternative control strategies are advised, resulting in additional costs to farmers and so a full cost benefit analysis of best practice management was undertaken. We allocated financial values to the management recommendations described in the SCOPS technical manual. Benefits were calculated using data for production variables and anthelmintic use measured during studies to evaluate the effect of SCOPS recommendations on 16 UK sheep farms and from other published work. As SCOPS control is not prescriptive and a range of different diagnostics are available, best and worst case scenarios were presented, comparing the cheapest methods (e.g. egg counts without larval culture) and management situations (e.g closed flocks not requiring quarantine treatments) with the most laborious and expensive. Simulations were run for farms with a small, medium or large flock (300; 1000; 1900 ewes) as well as comparing scenarios with and without potential production benefits from using effective wormers. Analysis demonstrated a moderate cost for all farms under both scenarios when production benefits were not included. A cost benefit was demonstrated for medium and large farms when production benefits were included and the benefit could be perceived as significant in the case of the large farms for the best case scenario (>£5000 per annum). Despite a significant potential reduction in anthelmintic use by farmers employing SCOPS guidance, the very low price of the older anthelmintic classes meant that the benefit did not always outweigh the additional management/diagnostic costs unless an increase in production was also achieved. This is an important finding. Focussing research on key innovations that will improve the cost effectiveness of diagnostic assays in a diagnostic driven control strategy, as well as designing treatment options that can improve production outcomes, and presenting them in a clear and transparent way, must be high priority goals. Coupling targeted research with improvements in the delivery of messages to the end user is important in the light of increasing global concerns over drug resistance.

Frequency, serotype distribution, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Salmonella in small poultry flocks in California.

Backyard poultry operations are increasingly popular and commonplace in both rural and suburban locations. Although Salmonella surveillance programs are well established for large commercial poultry systems, information on smaller operations is lacking. We identified the occurrence and serotype distribution of Salmonella spp. recovered from backyard flock cases submitted to the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System (Davis, CA) in 2012-2015, and evaluated minimum inhibitory concentration for 12 antimicrobials as well as the lesions associated with Salmonella spp. in these cases. From records of 2,347 backyard flock cases with 2,627 samples, 44 samples (1.7%) were positive for Salmonella spp. DNA by PCR, and 41 (1.6%) of these samples yielded a Salmonella isolate by culture for further characterization. Seventeen different serotypes, including 3 isolates identified to the serogroup level, were identified from these isolates. Antimicrobial resistance was infrequent; however, 2 multidrug-resistant isolates were identified. Enteric or systemic lesions associated with Salmonella recovery were uncommon, with 77.3% of cases having no disease attributable to Salmonella. Recovered serotypes overlap with those seen in commercial poultry as well as in foodborne outbreaks reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in humans. Zoonotic risks via contact and food product contamination make monitoring of backyard flocks for Salmonella a critical part of flock surveillance programs, and we propose a potential sampling scheme.

Prevalence of tick species in sheep and goat flocks in areas of southern Greece

The purpose of this study was to investigate the tick prevalence and to identify the species of ticks that parasitise the small ruminant flocks in the prefectures of Achaia (in the geographic region of Peloponnese) and Chania (in the island of Crete). Thirty flocks of goats and sheep were examined for tick parasitism during the period from December 2012 until August 2013. Sixteen of them were in Achaia and the rest 14 in Chania. In total, 84 goats and 148 sheep were examined; from them, 50 goats and 70 sheep in Achaia, and 34 goats and 78 sheep in Chania. The species Dermacentor marginatus was identified in Achaia in 15% of the animals. In Chania the species identified were Haemaphysalis punctata (13%), Hyalomma anatolicum (4.47%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (4.47%) and Ixodes ricinus (3.58%). This is the first study on tick infestation in sheep and goats in Peloponnese and Crete, two areas with large number of small ruminant population and important tradition in small ruminant farming.