Small Carnivore Species Research Articles

Palatability and Predator Avoidance Behavior of Salamanders in Response to the Virginia Opossum (Didelphis Virginiana)

Our understanding of mammalian predation on salamanders is primarily restricted to small carnivorous species (i.e., shrews). We conducted a series of investigations to determine whether the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) is a predator of various salamander species [Desmognathus fuscus, Plethodon dorsalis, and Notophthalmus viridescens (adult and eft)] from the eastern United States. All species, including toxic newt efts, were palatable to opossums. These results suggest opossums could be an active predator of salamanders. In a second study, each terrestrial salamander species exhibited avoidance responses to kairomones from opossums indicating that despite a significant risk of mortality each salamander has evolved mechanisms to minimize predation risk. Combined with overlapping habitat preferences, foraging behavior that places them in contact, and a dietary preference for animal matter, these data suggest opossums may be an important predator on terrestrial salamanders.

Converting arable land into flowering fields changes functional and phylogenetic community structure in ground beetles

Agri-environmental schemes aim to promote biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. However, knowledge about the impact of these measures on diversity components beyond species richness, especially for non-target species and their ecological functions, is still very poor. Here, we investigated the response of ground beetle communities to the conversion of arable land into flowering fields, which are primarily installed to counteract pollinator loss in agricultural landscapes. We are focusing on the relationship between biodiversity components and the evolutionary relationship among functional groups.Land-use conversion from arable land to flowering fields has changed the phylogenetic community composition of ground beetles towards a phylogenetically clustered community. This is due to an increase in closely related medium-sized herbivorous species and a decrease in evolutionarily distinct small carnivorous species. Phylogenetic clustering did not result in a reduction of functional richness, but it increased the number of unique trait combinations of species within the local communities. This suggests a low ecological redundancy among herbivorous species. Because species richness, functional richness and phylogenetic diversity were unaffected by conversion, phylogenetic community structuring was predominantly driven by species turnover rather than by numerical changes.Flowering fields can act as refuges for herbivorous carabids that potentially affect the surrounding agricultural landscape by providing important ecosystem services such as weed control. To understand the impact of habitat transformation on carabid biodiversity, it was more informative to relate response traits to phylogenic and functional diversity than to use single diversity measures such as species richness. This conclusion might also apply to many other taxa.

<b>Small carnivores of Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India</b>

A study on the small carnivores in Silent Valley National Park (SVNP), southern Western Ghats, Kerala, India was conducted from September 2015 to April 2016, using the camera trap technique. Seven species of small carnivores were recorded during the study. The most common species of small carnivore of SVNP was Viverricula indica (44%) followed by Paradoxurus jerdoni (20%) and Herpestes vitticollis (17%). The other small carnivores found at SVNP were Herpestes fuscus (7%), Prionailurus bengalensis (6%), Aonyx cinereus (5%) and Martes gwatkinsii (1%). P. jerdoni and M. gwatkinsii are endemic to the Western Ghats. We discuss the niche partitioning among small carnivores in SVNP.

<b>Small carnivores of the montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the Western Ghats, India</b>

The study of small carnivores of the montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the southern Western Ghats, India recorded nine species of small carnivores using the camera trapping technique. These include three species of Mongoose (Herpestidae), two species each of lesser cats (Felidae) and civets (Viverridae), one species each of Otter and Marten (Mustelidae). They are Stripe-necked Mongoose Herpestes vitticollis, Brown Mongoose Herpestes fuscus, Indian Grey Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii, Jungle Cat Felis chaus, Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis, Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphrodites, Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Asian Small-clawed Otter Aonyx cinereus, and Nilgiri Marten Martes gwatkinsii. It is interesting to note that the felines (lesser cats) are the more common small carnivores in the montane forests. Felis chaus was the most abundant small carnivore, which is followed by Prionailurus bengalensis and Herpestes vitticollis. Two species are Vulnerable as per the IUCN Red List, viz., Martes gwatkinsii and Aonyx cinereus.

AGE AND GROWTH OF BRAZILIAN SARDINELLA , Sardinella brasiliensis (STEINDACHNER) (OSTEICHTHYES:CLUPEIDAE), IN SOUTHEASTERN BRAZIL

New estimates of the growth parameters of Brazilian sardinella, Sardinella brasiliensis (Steindachner), have been obtained, based on readings of age rings on scales collected in the period from April, 1999 through March, 2000, off southeastern Brazil. The hypothesis of the existence of isometry in fish/scale growth was confirmed and the ageing techniques were validated by monthly variations in the marginal increment and in the mean back-calculated length, indicating birthday dates in April and November. Two cohorts are supposed to be produced by spawnings taking place about six months apart. The weight-length relationship is given by the regression equation W = 0.0000867 L 2.570 . Growth equations in length (mm) and weight (g) are: Lt= 286 [1–e–0.462 (t + 1.3)] and Wt= 178.2 [1–e–0.462 (t + 1.3)]2.570, with a growth performance index φ’ = 4.58. The first ring in scales of Brazilian sardinella should be formed when individuals are actually 1.8 year old, within a life span that reaches tmax= 7.7 yr. The natural mortality coeficiente was estimated as M = 0.769 and the ratio M/K = 1.66 is within the order of magnitude for Clupeidae species, being consistent with the behavior of small carnivorous species.

Prevalence of selected pathogens in small carnivores in reintroduction areas of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

THE Iberian lynx ( Lynx pardinus ) remains the most endangered feline species in the world. Currently, with reintroduction and captive breeding programmes underway, the increasing population size of the...

Feeding ecology of the culpeo in southern Ecuador: wild ungulates being the main prey

This study details for the first time the food habits of the culpeo or Andean fox (Lycalopex culpaeus) in high areas of the Ecuadorian Andes during a complete annual cycle. Our objective was to identify prey species, calculate their contribution to diet and test for temporal variation. In total, 304 Andean fox scats were collected within the Podocarpus National Park (Loja province, southern Ecuador). By analysing the content of scats 413 prey items were identified and classified into eight prey groups. Sub-sequently, the frequency of occurrence (FO) for each prey group was calculated per month together with the relative contribution of estimated consumed biomass (CB). In addition, the Shannon-Wiener’s index was calculated as a measurement of monthly diet diversity. The results show a diet dominated by cervids belonging to the Mazama and Pudu genus (70% FO), followed by small mammals (30% FO), large rodents (12% FO), carnivorous species (10% FO) and lagomorphs (8% FO). There was temporal variation in the consumption of both deer and small mammals. Cervids also provided the major part of the consumed biomass (70% CB), the remaining prey categories each accounted for less than 11% CB. Negative correlations in consumption were observed between cervids and two other groups, rabbits and small mammals. Trophic diversity values fluctuated throughout the year showing a mean of 1.7. The results obtained show a diets very different from those previously reported; deer being the bulk of the diet instead of rodents or other mammals. The consumption of carnivorous species in the area was also high in comparison with other regions. Overall, this study clearly demonstrates that the culpeo is an important top predator in the high-Andean ecosystem.

Hyperostotic tympanic bone spicules in domestic and wild animal species

Hyperostotic tympanic bone spicules (HTBS), or mucoperiosteal exostoses (ME, syn.) are small, globular (≥ 1 mm in diameter), mostly stalked and drumstick-like, bony structures, which arise from the inner wall of the tympanic bulla and project into the middle ear cavity. HTBS present as mineral densities inside the tympanic bulla on radiographs or computed tomographic (CT) images. They have previously been referred to as otoliths and were thought to represent mineral concretions secondary to otitis media. Recently, it was shown that HTBS actually consist of regularly composed bone tissue, covered by normal middle ear mucosa. So far, HTBS have only extensively been described in dogs, where they occur with a prevalence of up to > 45%. A recent study detected ME, most likely representing HTBS, in the tympanic cavities of skeletonised skull bones of African lions. To estimate the occurrence of HTBS in other mammal species, the middle ears of adult animals of 78 different domestic, wild, and zoo species undergoing routine necropsy at the Institute of Veterinary Pathology of the LMU Munich, Germany were examined in the present study. HTBS were found in the tympanic bullae of carnivorous species, such as canids (wolf, fox), and in several large felid species (lion, tiger, leopard, cheetah). In contrast, HTBS were not present in domestic cats (more than to 200 cases), small carnivorous species such as mustelids, nor in any primate, ungulate, ruminant, pig, insectivore, or rodent species. The detectability of HTBS by CT of the tympanic bullae of large felids was demonstrated in an African lion. Histologically, HTBS consisted of mature lamellar bone, covered by periosteum and a partially ciliated, flat epithelium, regularly without any apparent inflammatory alterations. The present study demonstrates that HTBS may frequently occur in large felids and in different canid species. These findings should be taken into account when examining the middle ear, or interpret - ing bulla radiographs/CT-images of the respective species. However, the factors triggering the development of HTBS remain to be identified.

The spatial distribution of Mustelidae in France.

We estimated the spatial distribution of 6 Mustelidae species in France using the data collected by the French national hunting and wildlife agency under the “small carnivorous species logbooks” program. The 1500 national wildlife protection officers working for this agency spend 80% of their working time traveling in the spatial area in which they have authority. During their travels, they occasionally detect dead or living small and medium size carnivorous animals. Between 2002 and 2005, each car operated by this agency was equipped with a logbook in which officers recorded information about the detected animals (species, location, dead or alive, date). Thus, more than 30000 dead or living animals were detected during the study period. Because a large number of detected animals in a region could have been the result of a high sampling pressure there, we modeled the number of detected animals as a function of the sampling effort to allow for unbiased estimation of the species density. For dead animals -- mostly roadkill -- we supposed that the effort in a given region was proportional to the distance traveled by the officers. For living animals, we had no way to measure the sampling effort. We demonstrated that it was possible to use the whole dataset (dead and living animals) to estimate the following: (i) the relative density -- i.e., the density multiplied by an unknown constant -- of each species of interest across the different French agricultural regions, (ii) the sampling effort for living animals for each region, and (iii) the relative detection probability for various species of interest.

Diversity and occupancy of small carnivores within oil palm plantations in central Sumatra, Indonesia

In Southeast Asia, the conversion of native forests to oil palm plantations threatens tropical biodiversity, but very little is known about the impacts of oil palm cultivation on small carnivore species. To determine the diversity and occupancy of small carnivores within oil palm plantations and to investigate possible factors that might affect their presence within oil palm, we used camera-traps within two oil palm plantations in central Sumatra, analysed the data using occupancy modelling and tested whether two covariates (distance to the edge of the oil palm habitat and distance from extensive areas of lowland forest) affected the model parameters for each small carnivore species. From 3164 camera-trap days, we detected only three small carnivores: leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga), which indicates that there was a low diversity of small carnivores within the oil palm plantations. Both the leopard cat and common palm civet were found deep within the oil palm, whereas the Malay civet was only detected near the edge in one of the plantations. The leopard cat and common palm civet had very high occupancy values, whereas the Malay civet had low values for both occupancy and detection probability. Neither covariate affected occupancy of the leopard cat and common palm civet, but distance from the edge of the oil palm habitat did influence their detection probabilities. Malay civet occupancy decreased with distance from the oil palm edge, and detection probability was affected by distance from extensive areas of lowland forest. Forests and rest/den site availability are suggested to be important features for small carnivores with oil palm-dominated landscapes.

Small carnivores of Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve, Karnataka, India

During the present study in Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve (BRT), nine species of small carnivores viz., Jungle Cat Felis chaus, Rusty-spotted Cat Prionalilurus rubiginosus, Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis, Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Asian Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Striped-necked Mongoose Herpestes vitticollis, Ruddy Mongoose Herpestes smithii, Common Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii and Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata, were recorded using camera-trapping technique, transect walks, and night surveys. Vegetation type strongly influences the presence and abundance of each species. The most sightings of small carnivores occurred in dry deciduous forests. Among all the species, the Asian Palm Civet was the most abundant and was followed by the small Indian Civet. Compared to many other forests or regions in India, the sight records of the Rusty-spotted Cat were relatively higher in BRT. Although we were unable to use statistical methods to search for higher levels of interdependencies between forest types and small carnivore abundance, our study sheds light on patterns of small carnivore distribution in this unique habitat which bridges the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.

Predicted distributions, niche comparisons, and conservation status of the spotted linsang (Prionodon pardicolor) and banded linsang (Prionodon linsang)

Knowledge of a species’ distribution and habitat preferences is of paramount importance when assessing its conservation status. We used accurately recorded occurrence records and ecological niche modeling to predict the distribution of two poorly known small carnivore species that occur in Asia, the spotted linsang (Prionodon pardicolor) and banded linsang (Prionodon linsang), and analyzed their niche overlaps for habitat and elevation. We then assessed the loss of their suitable habitat and estimated the proportion of predicted presence under protected areas. We identified and assessed possible anthropogenic threats, and used our modeling predictions to recommend surveying priorities. Our study confirmed that these two linsangs are geographically separated, with no known overlap of their distributions. Our results indicated that the habitat and elevation niches of these two linsangs are similar: they both occur primarily in evergreen forest and can be found at all elevations up to around 3,000 m. Although these two linsangs might be allopatric due to intense interspecific competition between them, other explanations could explain their distribution patterns, such as biogeographical and ecological barriers. Our findings suggest that these two linsangs might be threatened by the loss, degradation, and fragmentation of tropical evergreen forests. Urgent field studies are thus needed to learn more about their habitat requirements and the impact of anthropogenic threats, including tropical forest disturbance and hunting.

Estimating seasonal abundance and habitat use of small carnivores in the Western Ghats using an occupancy approach

Abstract:Rigorous population studies on many small carnivores are lacking in India. Presence-absence models with habitat covariates were applied to estimate seasonal occupancy and abundance of nine small-carnivore species from camera-trap data in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (2010 and 2011). We deployed 25 camera-trap stations in the deciduous forest, 21 in the semi-evergreen forest and 26 in the dry thorn forest. In total, 7380 trap-nights yielded 448 photographs of small carnivores: jungle cat (n = 72), leopard cat (n = 6), rusty-spotted cat (n = 11), small Indian civet (n = 89), common palm civet (n = 37), brown palm civet (n = 20), stripe-necked mongoose (n = 66), ruddy mongoose (n = 96) and Indian grey mongoose (n = 51). In the dry season, rusty-spotted cat was the rarest carnivore with an average abundance (λmean) of 0.24 ± 0.26, while ruddy mongoose was the most abundant (λmean = 0.90 ± 0.40). In the wet season, leopard cat was the rarest species (λmean = 0.048 ± 0.041) while grey mongoose was the most abundant (λmean = 0.68 ± 0.35). Abundance of jungle cat, common palm civet, ruddy mongoose and grey mongoose increased in the dry thorn forest whereas in the dry season abundance of small Indian civet decreased in this forest type. Abundance of leopard cat and small Indian civet was not influenced by habitat in the wet season. Deciduous forest was positively associated with abundance of rusty-spotted cat. Deciduous and semi-evergreen forests had a positive effect on abundance of stripe-necked mongoose while the latter was a positive predictor of abundance and occupancy for brown palm civet. Improved modelling approaches can account for the spatio-temporal variation in habitat use of small carnivores occupying specialized niches in heterogeneous tropical forests of southern India.

Viral metagenomic analysis of feces of wild small carnivores.

BackgroundRecent studies have clearly demonstrated the enormous virus diversity that exists among wild animals. This exemplifies the required expansion of our knowledge of the virus diversity present in wildlife, as well as the potential transmission of these viruses to domestic animals or humans.MethodsIn the present study we evaluated the viral diversity of fecal samples (n = 42) collected from 10 different species of wild small carnivores inhabiting the northern part of Spain using random PCR in combination with next-generation sequencing. Samples were collected from American mink (Neovison vison), European mink (Mustela lutreola), European polecat (Mustela putorius), European pine marten (Martes martes), stone marten (Martes foina), Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) and Eurasian badger (Meles meles) of the family of Mustelidae; common genet (Genetta genetta) of the family of Viverridae; red fox (Vulpes vulpes) of the family of Canidae and European wild cat (Felis silvestris) of the family of Felidae.ResultsA number of sequences of possible novel viruses or virus variants were detected, including a theilovirus, phleboviruses, an amdovirus, a kobuvirus and picobirnaviruses.ConclusionsUsing random PCR in combination with next generation sequencing, sequences of various novel viruses or virus variants were detected in fecal samples collected from Spanish carnivores. Detected novel viruses highlight the viral diversity that is present in fecal material of wild carnivores.

Skunky or Social

Evolution![Figure][1] CREDIT: DORLING KINDERSLEY/GETTY IMAGES Though we often think of mammals in the order Carnivora as predators, many of these species are themselves subject to high rates of predation and, as such, have evolved a suite of antipredator defenses that tend to sort them into two quite different categories. Such small carnivore species generally tend to be either solitary, often aposematically colored and armed with noxious anal sprays, or social and highly vigilant. Stankowich et al. used natural history data, including range overlap with potential predators, body size, and activity patterns, in conjunction with comparative phylogenetic analyses on 181 species of mammals to identify patterns of predation risk that could have contributed to the evolution of these two defensive strategies. They found that species that have evolved noxious sprays as a defense, such as skunks, tend to be nocturnal and subject to predation by other mammals, whereas socially vigilant species, such as mongooses, tend to be diurnal and at risk of predation by birds of prey. These results show how similar ecological contexts can result in the repeated evolution of highly adaptive strategies across species and regions. Evolution 10.1111/evo.12356 (2014). [1]: pending:yes

Predicting the Distribution Pattern of Small Carnivores in Response to Environmental Factors in the Western Ghats

Due to their secretive habits, predicting the pattern of spatial distribution of small carnivores has been typically challenging, yet for conservation management it is essential to understand the association between this group of animals and environmental factors. We applied maximum entropy modeling (MaxEnt) to build distribution models and identify environmental predictors including bioclimatic variables, forest and land cover type, topography, vegetation index and anthropogenic variables for six small carnivore species in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve. Species occurrence records were collated from camera-traps and vehicle transects during the years 2010 and 2011. We used the average training gain from forty model runs for each species to select the best set of predictors. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic plot (ROC) ranged from 0.81 to 0.93 for the training data and 0.72 to 0.87 for the test data. In habitat models for F. chaus, P. hermaphroditus, and H. smithii “distance to village” and precipitation of the warmest quarter emerged as some of the most important variables. “Distance to village” and aspect were important for V. indica while “distance to village” and precipitation of the coldest quarter were significant for H. vitticollis. “Distance to village”, precipitation of the warmest quarter and land cover were influential variables in the distribution of H. edwardsii. The map of predicted probabilities of occurrence showed potentially suitable habitats accounting for 46 km2 of the reserve for F. chaus, 62 km2 for V. indica, 30 km2 for P. hermaphroditus, 63 km2 for H. vitticollis, 45 km2 for H. smithii and 28 km2 for H. edwardsii. Habitat heterogeneity driven by the east-west climatic gradient was correlated with the spatial distribution of small carnivores. This study exemplifies the usefulness of modeling small carnivore distribution to prioritize and direct conservation planning for habitat specialists in southern India.

Are spotted skunks conspicuous or cryptic?

Aposematism and crypticity are viewed as mutually exclusive antipredator defense strategies with skunks being a classic example of the former. Skunks can spray noxious anal secretions and many species (Conepatus and Mephitis spp.) have bold blocks of white fur on black pelage, but spotted skunks (Spilogale sp.) have white spots and lines on a black coat suggesting an additional function. We tested the possibility that spotted skunks are conspicuous at close range but cryptic at a distance. Using quantitative measures of colouration extracted from photographs of taxidermied western spotted skunk, bobcat and striped skunk mounts taken at ≤ 5 m, we found that spotted skunk colouration was significantly more conspicuous than the cryptic bobcat but not than the striped skunk. Differences between mount and background colouration were significantly greater for spotted skunks than for bobcats but not for striped skunks. Both sets of results indicate that spotted skunks match their background poorly when viewed close up. In poor light, human observers found it easy to see a striped skunk mount when standing 40–145 m away but difficult to see a bobcat mount. Spotted skunk mounts were more difficult to see than a striped skunk but easier than a bobcat mount during evening watches, and no easier to see than a bobcat during early morning watches, results of which were broadly confirmed using dyed spotted skunk mounts. Therefore naturally coloured spotted skunks are relatively cryptic under certain lighting conditions when viewed from afar by human observers. Finally, across skunk species, spottedness is associated with small size, living in closed habitats, and being arboreal, similar to some other small cryptic carnivore species. Our analyses provide preliminary support for spotted skunks being cryptic at a distance but conspicuous close up, adding to a small but growing list of species utilizing two formerly distinct antipredator defense strategies.

Predicted distributions and conservation status of two threatened Southeast Asian small carnivores: the banded civet and Hose’s civet

Abstract Knowledge of the distribution and habitat preferences of a species is of paramount importance when assessing its conservation status. We used accurately recorded occurrence records and ecological niche modelling to predict the distribution of two threatened and poorly known small carnivore species that occur in Southeast Asia, the banded civet (Hemigalus derbyanus) and Hose’s civet (Diplogale hosei), and analysed their spatial niche differentiation for habitat and elevation. We then identified possible anthropogenic threats, and used our modelling predictions to recommend surveying priorities. The predicted distribution of the banded civet was principally in lowland evergreen forest in southern Myanmar/Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and three Mentawai Islands (Siberut, Sipora and South Pagai), and for Hose’s civet in evergreen forest across the higher elevation regions of Borneo. Our niche analyses suggested that there is a tendency for these two species to separate spatially along an elevation gradient: the banded civet is mainly found in lowland areas, whereas Hose’s civet primarily occurs at higher elevations. Our study strongly indicated that these two viverrids are forest-dependent species that may be threatened by forest loss, degradation and fragmentation. Field surveys should be prioritised in areas where each species is predicted to occur and no records currently exist.

Predicted distributions and ecological niches of 8 civet and mongoose species in Southeast Asia

Abstract Although Southeast Asia has a high diversity of small carnivore species, little is known about their distributions and ecology, and several species are now threatened with extinction. We predicted the distributions of 8 civet and mongoose species within Southeast Asia using ecological niche modeling, determined their habitat/elevation niche preferences, examined the interspecific differences in these 2 niche parameters, and investigated possible factors that could have affected these distribution and niche patterns. We found a tendency for each civet and mongoose species to separate spatially from related species on geographical, habitat, and elevation gradients, and that 3 pairs of civet and mongoose species showed similar distribution patterns and habitat/elevation preferences. The large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha) and crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes urva) have similar distributions throughout mainland Southeast Asia, are found over a broad range of elevations, and occur primarily in evergre...

Flea Diversity on Small Carnivores in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa

Small carnivores are parasitized by various ectoparasites that include fleas (Siphonaptera). To date few parasite studies in South Africa, and especially the Northern Cape, have focused on fleas, while those that have are biased by small sample sizes. In an attempt to address the paucity of information fleas were collected from five small carnivore species trapped at Loxton and Kimberley in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. The aim of the study was to contribute to current data on the flea diversity found on various small carnivore species. Small carnivores were trapped and while anesthetized the fleas were manually removed from the fur of the animals. In total 48 small carnivores were trapped of which 30 harboured fleas. Of the five flea species that were recorded the most numerous and prevalent was Echidnophaga gallinacea followed by Ctenocephalides connatus and Ctenocephalides damarensis. Fleas were more numerous and prevalent on the small-spotted cat, Felis nigripes, followed by the yellow mon...