Slow-twitch Muscle Research Articles

Molecular Imprinted Polymer-Based FET Sensor for Sensing of Sweat Testosterone to Monitor Athletic Performance

High testosterone is associated with increased physical performance in sports due to its stimulation with body-muscle ratio, lean mass (muscle and bone), and bone density. Several studies show athletes with better explosive strength and sprint running performances in football, have a higher basal level of testosterone. The results suggest a relationship between testosterone production and the development of fast-twitch muscle fibers, endurance training, lean mass, resistance training in athletes as well as motivation for competition. Thus, monitoring testosterone levels is gaining attention to evaluate athletic performance of one's physical performance in sport, fitness, and bodybuilding as well as prevent health risk factors for low levels of testosterone. There have been attempts using optical, electrical and biochemical sensors to monitor testosterone but are difficult to reproduce in large quantities and suffer from limitations of sensitivity, and detection limits. This can be addressed using Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) in a point of care (POC) system. Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) are a synthetic polymer with cavities in the polymer matrix serve as recognition sites for a specific template molecule, which are detected using electrochemical amperometry.In this paper, we have used MIPs in conjunction with cyclic voltammetry, to produce a viable, ultrasensitive electrochemical sensor for the detection of testosterone from a human sweat sample. This combination of MIPs and cyclic voltammetry allows for a simple, low-cost, mass-producible, and non-invasive method for detecting testosterone in human males. This method is extremely simple and cheap, allowing for consistent measurement of Testosterone levels in humans and allows for the detection of Testosterone in a POC. In our work, a Screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) using polypropylene fabric was used as the base working electrode in a three-electrode system. The screen-printing technique was implemented to layer a carbon paste over both sides of the fabric and was air-dried for one hour at 75⁰C. The SPCE was immersed into an acetate buffer solution that contains a 2.0mM monomer called o-phenylenediamine and with a 0.1mM testosterone template. Electropolymerization was carried out with cyclic voltammetry from a range of 0V to 1.0V, at a scan rate of 50 mV/s, a sensitivity (A/V) of 1e-5A, and for a total of 30 cycles. The set concentration tested was 100-1600 ng/ml of testosterone. The electrochemical characterization will have a potential sweep of -1.2 V to 1.2 V, a scan rate of 0.05 (V/s), a sensitivity (A/V) of 1e-5A, and a singular cycle. The wearable biosensor showed a detection range for testosterone from 100ng to 1600ng, electrochemical results also showed a clear and measurable result with an R-square value of 0.9417 which proves the accuracy of the developed sensor. Although this is not the complete saturation point and theoretically maximum limit of 28,842ng/ml can be achieved although this was not tested. The detectable lowest concentration of testosterone was found to be ~100ng/ml, and it was noted that lower than 100ng gives a weaker signal,In conclusion a novel electrochemical sensor based on a molecularly imprinted polymer used as the extended gate of a field effect transistor was developed for the ultrasensitive detection of sweat Testosterone. This sensing technology paves the way for the low cost, label-free, and point of care detection which can be used for evaluating ang monitoring athletic performance.

Association of Gene Variants for Mechanical and Metabolic Muscle Quality with Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Variables Related to Performance in Skiing Athletes.

Background: Skiing is a popular outdoor sport posing different requirements on musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory function to excel in competition. The extent to which genotypic features contribute to the development of performance with years of ski-specific training remains to be elucidated. We therefore tested whether prominent polymorphisms in genes for angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE-I/D, rs1799752), tenascin-C (TNC, rs2104772), actinin-3 (ACTN3, rs1815739) and PTK2 (rs7460 and rs7843014) are associated with the differentiation of cellular hallmarks of muscle metabolism and contraction in high level skiers. Material & Methods: Forty-three skiers of a world-leading national ski team performed exhaustive cardiopulmonary exercise testing as well as isokinetic strength testing for single contractions, whereby 230 cardiopulmonary measurements were performed in the period from 2015–2018. A total of 168 and 62 data measurements were from the Alpine and Nordic skiing squads, respectively. Ninety-five and one hundred thirty-five measurements, respectively, were from male and female athletes. The average (±SD) age was 21.5 ± 3.0 years, height 174.0 ± 8.7 cm, and weight 71.0 ± 10.9 kg for the analysed skiers. Furthermore, all skiers were analysed concerning their genotype ACE-I/D, Tenascin C, ACTN3, PTK2. Results: The genotype distribution deviated from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium for the ACTN3 genotype, where rs1815739-TT genotypes (corresponding to the nonsense mutation) were overrepresented in world-class skiers, indicating a slow muscle fibre phenotype. Furthermore, the heterozygous rs2104772-AT genotypes of TNC also demonstrated the best scaled peak power output values during ramp exercise to exhaustion. The highest values under maximum performance for heart rate were associated with the rs1799752-II and rs1815739-CC genotypes. The lowest values for peak power of single contractions were achieved for rs1815739-CC, rs1799752-II and rs7843014-CT genotypes. The skiing discipline demonstrated a main influence on cardiorespiratory parameters but did not further interact with genotype-associated variability in performance. Discussion: Classically, it is pointed out that muscles of, for example, alpine skiers do not possess a distinct fibre type composition, but that skiers tend to have a preponderance of slow-twitch fibres. Consequently, our findings of an overrepresentation of ACTN3-TT genotypes in a highly selective sample of elite world class skiers support the potential superiority of a slow fibre type distribution. Conclusions: We suggest that one competitive advantage that results from a slow, typically fatigue-resistant fibre type distribution might be that performance during intense training days is better preserved, whereby simply a higher technical training volume can be performed, yielding to a competitive advantage.

VP.04 Ryanodine receptor - related disorders

The ryanodine receptors (RyR1) is the main sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ channel in skeletal muscle and acts as a connecting link between electrical stimulation and Ca²⁺-dependent muscle contraction. <i>RYR1</i> is expressed predominantly in fast and slow-twitch skeletal muscle and also in the esophagus and in cerebellar Purkinje cells in the brain. <i>RYR2</i> is the predominant isoform in cardiac muscle and brain. Its expression in the brain, brain stem, and spinal cord is widespread, but it is absent from the pituitary. <i>RYR3</i> is differentially expressed in the brain. Abnormal RyR1 activity compromises normal muscle function. RYR1-associated myopathies have been described as rare, histopathologically and clinically heterogeneous, and slowly progressive neuromuscular disorders. <i>RYR1</i> variants can lead to dysfunctional RyR1-mediated calcium release, malignant hyperthermia susceptibility, elevated oxidative stress, deleterious post-translational modifications, and decreased RyR1 expression. <i>RYR1</i> mutations cause disorders such as malignant hyperthermia, central core disease, congenital fibre type disproportion and centronuclear myopathy. However, <i>RYR1</i> is one of the largest genes of the human genome and accumulates numerous missense variants of uncertain significance (VUS), precluding an efficient molecular diagnosis for many patients and families. Here we describe several <i>RYR</i> mutations and correlate them to the diseases. We also validated large deletion in ryanodine receptor 1 (<i>RYR1</i>) using droplet digital PCR.

Functional genomics analysis reveals the evolutionary adaptation and demographic history of pygmy lorises

Lorises are a group of globally threatened strepsirrhine primates that exhibit many unusual physiological and behavioral features, including a low metabolic rate, slow movement, and hibernation. Here, we assembled a chromosome-level genome sequence of the pygmy loris (Xanthonycticebus pygmaeus) and resequenced whole genomes from 50 pygmy lorises and 6 Bengal slow lorises (Nycticebus bengalensis). We found that many gene families involved in detoxification have been specifically expanded in the pygmy loris, including the GSTA gene family, with many newly derived copies functioning specifically in the liver. We detected many genes displaying evolutionary convergence between pygmy loris and koala, including PITRM1. Significant decreases in PITRM1 enzymatic activity in these two species may have contributed to their characteristic low rate of metabolism. We also detected many evolutionarily convergent genes and positively selected genes in the pygmy loris that are involved in muscle development. Functional assays demonstrated the decreased ability of one positively selected gene, MYOF, to up-regulate the fast-type muscle fiber, consistent with the lower proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers in the pygmy loris. The protein product of another positively selected gene in the pygmy loris, PER2, exhibited weaker binding to the key circadian core protein CRY, a finding that may be related to this species' unusual circadian rhythm. Finally, population genomics analysis revealed that these two extant loris species, which coexist in the same habitat, have exhibited an inverse relationship in terms of their demography over the past 1 million years, implying strong interspecies competition after speciation.

Effect of resistance training mainly depends on mechanical activation of fast-twitch fiber

Effect of resistance training mainly depends on mechanical activation of fast-twitch fiber

Genomic Predictors of Brisk Walking Are Associated with Elite Sprinter Status.

Brisk walkers are physically more active, taller, have reduced body fat and greater physical fitness and muscle strength. The aim of our study was to determine whether genetic variants associated with increased walking pace were overrepresented in elite sprinters compared to controls. A total of 70 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) previously identified in a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of self-reported walking pace in 450,967 European individuals were explored in relation to sprinter status. Genotyping of 137 Russian elite sprinters and 126 controls was performed using microarray technology. Favorable (i.e., high-speed-walking) alleles of 15 SNPs (FHL2 rs55680124 C, SLC39A8 rs13107325 C, E2F3 rs4134943 T, ZNF568 rs1667369 A, GDF5 rs143384 G, PPARG rs2920503 T, AUTS2 rs10452738 A, IGSF3 rs699785 A, CCT3 rs11548200 T, CRTAC1 rs2439823 A, ADAM15 rs11264302 G, C6orf106 rs205262 A, AKAP6 rs12883788 C, CRTC1 rs11881338 A, NRXN3 rs8011870 G) were identified as having positive associations with sprinter status (p < 0.05), of which IGSF3 rs699785 survived correction for multiple testing (p = 0.00004) and was linked (p = 0.042) with increased proportions of fast-twitch muscle fibers of m. vastus lateralis in physically active men (n = 67). Polygenic analysis revealed that individuals with ≥18 favorable alleles of the 15 SNPs have an increased odds ratio of being an elite sprinter when compared to those with ≤17 alleles (OR: 7.89; p < 0.0001). Using UK Biobank data, we also established the association of 14 favorable alleles with low BMI and fat percentage, 8 alleles with increased handgrip strength, and 7 alleles with increased height and fat-free mass. In conclusion, we have identified 15 new genetic markers associated with sprinter status.

Limonium tetragonum Promotes Running Endurance in Mice through Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Oxidative Fiber Formation.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether Limonium tetragonum, cultivated in a smart-farming system with LED lamps, could increase exercise capacity in mice. C57BL/6 male mice were orally administered vehicle or Limonium tetragonum water extract (LTE), either 30 or 100 mg/kg, and were subjected to moderate intensity treadmill exercise for 4 weeks. Running distance markedly increased in the LTE group (100 mg/kg) by 80 ± 4% compared to the vehicle group, which was accompanied by a higher proportion of oxidative fibers (6 ± 6% vs. 10 ± 4%). Mitochondrial DNA content and gene expressions related to mitochondrial biogenesis were significantly increased in LTE-supplemented gastrocnemius muscles. At the molecular level, the expression of PGC-1α, a master regulator of fast-to-slow fiber-type transition, was increased downstream of the PKA/CREB signaling pathway. LTE induction of the PKA/CREB signaling pathway was also observed in C2C12 cells, which was effectively suppressed by PKA inhibitors H89 and Rp-cAMP. Altogether, these findings indicate that LTE treatment enhanced endurance exercise capacity via an improvement in mitochondrial biosynthesis and the increases in the formation of oxidative slow-twitch fibers. Future study is warranted to validate the exercise-enhancing effect of LTE in the human.

Transcriptome sequencing analysis of the role of miR-499-5p and SOX6 in chicken skeletal myofiber specification.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) might play critical roles in skeletal myofiber specification. In a previous study, we found that chicken miR-499-5p is specifically expressed in slow-twitch muscle and that its potential target gene is SOX6. In this study, we performed RNA sequencing to investigate the effects of SOX6 and miR-499-5p on the modulation and regulation of chicken muscle fiber type and its regulatory mechanism. The expression levels of miR-499-5p and SOX6 demonstrated opposing trends in different skeletal muscles and were associated with muscle fiber type composition. Differential expression analysis revealed that miR-499-5p overexpression led to significant changes in the expression of 297 genes in chicken primary myoblasts (CPMs). Myofiber type-related genes, including MYH7B and CSRP3, showed expression patterns similar to those in slow-twitch muscle. According to functional enrichment analysis, differentially expressed genes were mostly associated with muscle development and muscle fiber-related processes. SOX6 was identified as the target gene of miR-499-5p in CPM using target gene mining and luciferase reporter assays. SOX6 knockdown resulted in upregulation of the slow myosin genes and downregulation of fast myosin genes. Furthermore, protein-protein interaction network analysis revealed that MYH7B and RUNX2 may be the direct targets of SOX6. These results indicated that chicken miR-499-5p may promote slow-twitch muscle fiber formation by repressing SOX6 expression. Our study provides a dataset that can be used as a reference for animal meat quality and human muscle disease studies.

A Combined Differential Proteome and Transcriptome Profiling of Fast- and Slow-Twitch Skeletal Muscle in Pigs.

Skeletal muscle fiber types can contribute in part to affecting pork quality parameters. Biceps femoris (Bf) (fast muscle or white muscle) and Soleus (Sol) (slow muscle or red muscle) are two typical skeletal muscles characterized by obvious muscle fiber type differences in pigs. However, the critical proteins and potential regulatory mechanisms regulating porcine skeletal muscle fibers have yet to be clearly defined. In this study, the isobaric Tag for Relative and Absolute Quantification (iTRAQ)-based proteome was used to identify the key proteins affecting the skeletal muscle fiber types with Bf and Sol, by integrating the previous transcriptome data, while function enrichment analysis and a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network were utilized to explore the potential regulatory mechanisms of skeletal muscle fibers. A total of 126 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) between the Bf and Sol were identified, and 12 genes were found to be overlapping between differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and DAPs, which are the critical proteins regulating the formation of skeletal muscle fibers. Functional enrichment and PPI analysis showed that the DAPs were mainly involved in the skeletal-muscle-associated structural proteins, mitochondria and energy metabolism, tricarboxylic acid cycle, fatty acid metabolism, and kinase activity, suggesting that PPI networks including DAPs are the main regulatory network affecting muscle fiber formation. Overall, these data provide valuable information for understanding the molecular mechanism underlying the formation and conversion of muscle fiber types, and provide potential markers for the evaluation of meat quality.

Association of the ACTN3 rs1815739 Polymorphism with Physical Performance and Injury Incidence in Professional Women Football Players.

The p.R577X polymorphism (rs1815739) in the ACTN3 gene causes individuals with the XX genotype to be deficient in functional α-actinin-3. Previous investigations have found that XX athletes are more prone to suffer non-contact muscle injuries, in comparison with RR and RX athletes who produce a functional α-actinin-3 in their fast-twitch fibers. This investigation aimed to determine the influence of the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism on physical performance and injury incidence of players competing in the women’s Spanish first division of football (soccer). Using a cross-sectional experiment, football-specific performance and epidemiology of non-contact football-related injuries were recorded in a group of 191 professional football players. ACTN3 R577X genotype was obtained for each player using genomic DNA samples obtained through buccal swabs. A battery of physical tests, including a countermovement jump, a 20 m sprint test, the sit-and-reach test and ankle dorsiflexion, were performed during the preseason. Injury incidence and characteristics of non-contact injuries were obtained according to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) statement for one season. From the study sample, 28.3% of players had the RR genotype, 52.9% had the RX genotype, and 18.8% had the XX genotype. Differences among genotypes were identified with one-way analysis of variance (numerical variables) or chi-square tests (categorical variables). Jump height (p = 0.087), sprint time (p = 0.210), sit-and-reach distance (p = 0.361), and dorsiflexion in the right (p = 0.550) and left ankle (p = 0.992) were similar in RR, RX, and XX football players. A total of 356 non-contact injuries were recorded in 144 football players while the remaining 47 did not sustain any non-contact injuries during the season. Injury incidence was 10.4 ± 8.6, 8.2 ± 5.7, and 8.9 ± 5.3 injuries per/1000 h of football exposure, without differences among genotypes (p = 0.222). Injury rates during training (from 3.6 ± 3.7 to 4.8 ± 2.1 injuries per/1000 h of training exposure, p = 0.100) and match (from 47.8 ± 9.5 to 54.1 ± 6.3 injuries per/1000 h of match exposure, p = 0.209) were also similar in RR, RX, and XX football players. The ACTN3 genotype did not affect the mode of onset, the time needed to return to play, the type of injury, or the distribution of body locations of the injuries. In summary, women football players with different genotypes of the p.R577X ACTN3 polymorphism had similar values of football-specific performance and injury incidence. From a practical perspective, the ACTN3 genotyping may not be useful to predict performance or injury incidence in professional women football players.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Muscles in Dezhou Donkeys.

The skeletal muscle fiber profile is closely related to livestock meat quality. However, the molecular mechanisms determining muscle fiber types in donkeys are not completely understood. In this study, we selected the psoas major muscle (PM; mainly composed of oxidative-type muscle fibers) and biceps femoris muscle (BF; mainly composed of glycolytic-type muscle fibers) and systematically compared their mRNA and microRNA transcriptomes via RNA-seq. We identified a total of 2881 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 21 known differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRs). Furthermore, functional enrichment analysis showed that the DEGs were mainly involved in energy metabolism and actin cytoskeleton regulation. The glycolysis/gluconeogenesis pathway (including up-regulated genes such as PKM, LDHA, PGK1 and ALDOA) was more highly enriched in BF, whereas the oxidative phosphorylation pathway and cardiac muscle contraction (including down-regulated genes such as LDHB, ATP2A2, myosin-7 (MYH7), TNNC1, TPM3 and TNNI1) was more enriched in PM. Additionally, we identified several candidate miRNA–mRNA pairs that might regulate muscle fiber types using the integrated miRNA–mRNA analysis. Combined with the results of protein–protein interaction (PPI) analysis, some interesting DEGs (including ACTN3, TNNT3, TPM2, TNNC2, PKM, TNNC1 and TNNI1) might be potential candidate target genes involved in the miRNA-mediated regulation of the myofibril composition. This study is the first to indicate that DEmiRs, especially eca-miR-193a-5p and eca-miR-370, and potential candidate target genes that are mainly involved in actin binding (e.g., ACTN3, TNNT3 and TNNC1) and the glycolysis/gluconeogenesis pathways (e.g., PKM) might coregulate the myofibril composition in donkeys. This study may provide useful information for improving meat quality traits in Dezhou donkeys.

K+-induced Potentiation And Post-tetanic Potentiation Act Via Independent Mechanisms In Mouse Fast-twitch Muscle

A potentiation of force in skeletal muscle has been described as a consequence of moderate increases in extracellular [K+]. This K+-induced potentiation exhibits similarities to the well-described phenomenon of post-tetanic potentiation (PTP), in that both affect force at low frequency of stimulation and that the effect is largest in muscles predominated by fast twitch fibers. Mechanistically PTP is caused largely by skeletal myosin light chain kinase (skMLCK) catalyzed phosphorylation of the myosin regulatory light chains (RLC), while the mechanism of K+-induced potentiation is still not fully elucidated. PURPOSE: To investigate the interactive effects of K+-induced potentiation and PTP and their possible mechanistic overlap between the two potentiation phenomena. METHODS: We assessed the influence of elevated [K+] and PTP on the isometric twitch force response in extensor digitorum longus muscles isolated from wild type and skeletal myosin light chain kinase absent mice (skMLCK-/-). Muscles were incubated in Tyrode solution with either 5 or 10 mM K+ at 25 °C. PTP was elicited by 4 tetanic contractions elicited by brief stimulation trains (0.2-0.4 s at 50-200 Hz) all delivered within 10 s. RESULTS: Increasing [K+] of the incubation medium from 5 to 10 mM increased isometric twitch force by a similar amount in wildtype and skMLCK-/- muscles (~ 12-14 in % both genotypes) (all data n = 7-8, P < 0.05). At 5 mM K+, the relative twitch potentiation caused by a tetanic stimulus series (PTP) was much greater for wildtype than for skMLCK-/- muscles (i.e. 24 and 8%, respectively). In addition, for both genotypes, in muscles already potentiated by 10 mM K+, PTP elicited the same degree of twitch potentiation as that seen at 5 mM K+ (25 and 10% increase in wildtype and skMLCK-/-, respectively). CONCLUSION: We conclude that [K+] and PTP are additive and that [K+]-induced potentiation is independent of RLC phosphorylation.

Perioperative Oral β-Hydroxy-β-Methylbutyrate Supplementation Ameliorates Sarcopenia in Rats Undergoing Major Hepatectomy.

β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB), a metabolite of leucine, is known to increase muscle mass and strength. However, the effect of perioperative HMB supplementation in liver surgery is unclear. Moreover, the impact of HMB on the skeletal muscle fiber type also remains unclear. We investigated the impact of HMB on the body composition and skeletal muscle fiber type in sarcopenic rats undergoing major hepatectomy. Nine-week-old male F344/NSlc rats were maintained in hindlimb suspension (HLS) and were forcedly supplemented with HMB calcium salt (HMB-Ca, 0.58 g/kg×2 times) or distilled water in addition to free feeding. After 2 wk of HLS, the rats underwent 70% hepatectomy and were sacrificed 3 d after surgery. Body composition factors and the proportion of slow-twitch fibers in hindlimb muscles were evaluated. HMB maintained the body composition and hindlimb force and acted against their deterioration in sarcopenic rats, exerting a particular effect on lean mass weight, which was significant. In the histological study, HMB significantly increased the proportion of slow-twitch fibers in the soleus (p=0.044) and plantaris (p=0.001) of sarcopenic rats. HMB ameliorated deterioration of the body composition and increased the proportion of slow-twitch fibers in sarcopenic rats undergoing major hepatectomy.

Calcium and strontium contractile activation properties of single skinned skeletal muscle fibres from elderly women 66–90 years of age

The single freshly skinned muscle fibre technique was used to investigate Ca2+- and Sr2+-activation properties of skeletal muscle fibres from elderly women (66–90 years). Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis muscle. Three populations of muscle fibres were identified according to their specific Sr2+-activation properties: slow-twitch (type I), fast-twitch (type II) and hybrid (type I/II) fibres. All three fibre types were sampled from the biopsies of 66 to 72 years old women, but the muscle biopsies of women older than 80 years yielded only slow-twitch (type I) fibres. The proportion of hybrid fibres in the vastus lateralis muscle of women of circa 70 years of age (24%) was several-fold greater than in the same muscle of adults (< 10%), suggesting that muscle remodelling occurs around this age. There were no differences between the Ca2+- and Sr2+-activation properties of slow-twitch fibres from the two groups of elderly women, but there were differences compared with muscle fibres from young adults with respect to sensitivity to Ca2+, steepness of the activation curves, and characteristics of the fibre-type dependent phenomenon of spontaneous oscillatory contractions (SPOC) (or force oscillations) occurring at submaximal levels of activation. The maximal Ca2+ activated specific force from all the fibres collected from the seven old women use in the present study was significantly lower by 20% than in the same muscle of adults. Taken together these results show there are qualitative and quantitative changes in the activation properties of the contractile apparatus of muscle fibres from the vastus lateralis muscle of women with advancing age, and that these changes need to be considered when explaining observed changes in women’s mobility with aging.

Extended Match Time Exacerbates Fatigue and Impacts Physiological Responses in Male Soccer Players.

This study evaluated how extended match time (90 + 30 min) affected physiological responses and fatigue in male soccer players. Twenty competitive players (mean ± SD: age, 20 ± 1 yr; maximal oxygen uptake, 59 ± 4 mL·min -1 ·kg -1 ) completed an experimental match with their activity pattern and heart rate assessed throughout the game, whereas countermovement jump performance and repeated sprint ability were tested and quadriceps muscle biopsies and venous blood samples were taken at baseline and after 90 and 120 min of match play. Less high-intensity running (12%) was performed in extra time in association with fewer intense accelerations and decelerations per minute compared with normal time. Peak sprint speed was 11% lower in extra time compared with normal time, and fatigue also manifested in impaired postmatch repeated sprint ability and countermovement jump performance (all P < 0.05). Muscle glycogen declined from 373 ± 59 mmol·kg -1 dry weight (dw) at baseline to 266 ± 64 mmol·kg -1 dw after 90 min, with a further decline to 186 ± 56 mmol·kg -1 dw after extra time ( P < 0.05) and with single-fiber analyses revealing depleted or very low glycogen levels in ~75% of both slow and fast twitch fibers. Blood glucose did not change during the first 90-min but declined ( P < 0.05) to 81 ± 8 mg·dL -1 after extra time. Plasma glycerol and ammonia peaked at 236 ± 33 mg·dL -1 and 75 ± 21 μmol·L -1 after the extra period. These findings demonstrate exacerbated fatigue after extra time compared with normal time, which seems to be associated with muscle glycogen depletion, reductions in blood glucose levels, and hyperammonemia. Together, this points to metabolic disturbances being a major part of the integrated and multifaceted fatigue response during extended soccer match play.

KMT5B is required for early motor development.

Disruptive variants in lysine methyl transferase 5B (KMT5B/SUV4-20H1) have been identified as likely-pathogenic among humans with neurodevelopmental phenotypes including motor deficits (i.e., hypotonia and motor delay). However, the role that this enzyme plays in early motor development is largely unknown. Using a Kmt5b gene trap mouse model, we assessed neuromuscular strength, skeletal muscle weight (i.e., muscle mass), neuromuscular junction (NMJ) structure, and myofiber type, size, and distribution. Tests were performed over developmental time (postnatal days 17 and 44) to represent postnatal versus adult structures in slow- and fast-twitch muscle types. Prior to the onset of puberty, slow-twitch muscle weight was significantly reduced in heterozygous compared to wild-type males but not females. At the young adult stage, we identified decreased neuromuscular strength, decreased skeletal muscle weights (both slow- and fast-twitch), increased NMJ fragmentation (in slow-twitch muscle), and smaller myofibers in both sexes. We conclude that Kmt5b haploinsufficiency results in a skeletal muscle developmental deficit causing reduced muscle mass and body weight.

The effect of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on protein expression in Flexor Hallucis Longus (FHL) and soleus (SOL) in rats with type 2 diabetes.

In people with diabetes, one of the problems for patients is muscle wasting and inhibition of the protein synthesis pathway. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of HIIT on protein expression in two skeletal muscles, flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and soleus (SOL) in rats with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Diabetes initially was induced by streptozotocin (STZ) and nicotinamide. Rats with type 2 diabetes were randomly and equally divided into control (n = 6) and HIIT groups (n = 6). After 8 weeks of training, the content of total and phosphorylated proteins of serine/threonine-protein kinases (AKT1), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), P70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (P70S6K1), and 4E (eIF4E)-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) in FHL and SOL muscles were measured by Western blotting. While body weight and blood glucose were also controlled. In the HIIT training group, compared to the control group, a significant increase in the content of AKT1 (0.003) and mTOR (0.001) proteins was observed in the FHL muscle. Also, after 8 weeks of HIIT training, protein 4E-BP1 (0.001) was increased in SOL muscle. However, there was no significant change in other proteins in FHL and SOL muscle. In rats with type 2 diabetes appear to HIIT leading to more protein expression of fast-twitch muscles than slow-twitch muscles. thus likely HIIT exercises can be an important approach to increase protein synthesis and prevent muscle atrophy in people with type 2 diabetes.

Ellagic Acid Alters Muscle Fiber-Type Composition and Promotes Mitochondrial Biogenesis through the AMPK Signaling Pathway in Healthy Pigs.

Ellagic acid (EA), because of its remarkable health-promoting ability, has aroused widespread interest in the fields of nutrition and medicine. However, no reports showed that EA regulates mitochondrial biogenesis as well as muscle fiber-type composition in pigs. Our study found that dietary 75 and 150 mg/kg EA obviously augmented the slow myosin heavy chain (MyHC) protein level, the number of slow-twitch muscle fibers, and the activity of malate dehydrogenase (MDH) in the longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle of growing-finishing pigs. In contrast, dietary 75 and 150 mg/kg EA decreased the fast MyHC level, the number of fast-twitch muscle fibers, and the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in the LT muscle. In addition, our further study found that dietary 75 and 150 mg/kg EA promoted the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content, the mRNA expressions of ATP synthase (ATP5G), mtDNA transcription factor A (TFAM), AMP-activated protein kinase α1 (AMPKα1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) and sirtuin 1 (Sirt1), and the level of phospho-LKB1 (P-LKB1), phospho-AMPK (P-AMPK), Sirt1, and PGC-1α in the LT muscle. In vitro, 5, 10, and 20 μmol/L EA treatment upregulated the level of slow MyHC, but only 10 μmol/L EA treatment decreased fast MyHC protein expression in porcine skeletal muscle satellite cells (PSCs). In addition, our data again found that 10 μmol/L EA treatment promoted the mtDNA content, the mRNA levels of ATP5G, mitochondrial transcription factor b1 (TFB1M), citrate synthase (Cs), AMPKα1, PGC-1α, and Sirt1, and the protein expressions of P-AMPK, P-LKB1, PGC-1α, and Sirt1 in PSCs. What is more, inhibition of the AMPK signaling pathway by AMPKα1 siRNA significantly eliminated the improvement of EA on muscle fiber-type composition as well as the mtDNA content in PSCs. In conclusion, EA altered muscle fiber-type composition and promoted mitochondrial biogenesis through the AMPK signaling pathway.

Leptin mediates the regulation of muscle mass and strength by adipose tissue.

Adipose tissue secretes numerous cytokines (termed ‘adipokines’) that have known or hypothesized actions on skeletal muscle. The majority of adipokines have been implicated in the pathological link between excess adipose and muscle insulin resistance, but approximately half also have documented in vitro effects on myogenesis and/or hypertrophy. This complexity suggests a potential dual role for adipokines in the regulation of muscle mass in homeostasis and the development of pathology. In this study, we used lipodystrophic ‘fat‐free’ mice to demonstrate that adipose tissue is indeed necessary for the development of normal muscle mass and strength. Fat‐free mice had significantly reduced mass (∼15%) and peak contractile tension (∼20%) of fast‐twitch muscles, a slowing of contractile dynamics and decreased cross‐sectional area of fast twitch fibres compared to wild‐type littermates. These deficits in mass and contractile tension were fully rescued by reconstitution of ∼10% of normal adipose mass, indicating that this phenotype is the direct consequence of absent adipose. We then showed that the rescue is solely mediated by the adipokine leptin, as similar reconstitution of adipose from leptin‐knockout mice fails to rescue mass or strength. Together, these data indicate that the development of muscle mass and strength in wild‐type mice is dependent on adipose‐secreted leptin. This finding extends our current understanding of the multiple roles of adipokines in physiology as well as disease pathophysiology to include a critical role for the adipokine leptin in muscle homeostasis. Key points Adipose‐derived cytokines (adipokines) have long been implicated in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance in obesity but likely have other under‐appreciated roles in muscle physiology.Here we use a fat‐free mouse to show that adipose tissue is necessary for the normal development of muscle mass and strength.Through add‐back of genetically modified adipose tissue we show that leptin is the key adipokine mediating this regulation.This expands our understanding of leptin's role in adipose–muscle signalling to include development and homeostasis and adds the surprising finding that leptin is the sole mediator of the maintenance of muscle mass and strength by adipose tissue.

Is Insulin Resistance the Heavy Toll for Speed?

Average Joe’s skeletal muscles are composed of a roughly equal number of slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers. Some not-so-average people may display a clear dominance of fast fibers (or others of slow fibers) and therefore possess an innate talent to excel in fast and sprint-like sport events. There may have been evolutionary benefits from this striking heterogeneity in muscle typology within or between early human tribes. Yet, there appears to be significant clinical implications of these uneven muscle fiber type compositions in contemporary humans. Is speed a trade-off for insulin sensitivity? An elegant study by Blackwood et al (1) was recently published in this journal and demonstrates that insulin resistance is higher in an a priori established group of people with a dominant fast-twitch muscle fiber typology when compared to a slow-twitch group. This association between the heterogeneity in the skeletal muscle fiber typology of healthy adults and the whole-body insulin sensitivity means an important revival and expansion of earlier research. Lillioja et al (2) originally observed that the muscle fiber type composition is related to the in vivo insulin action in healthy men.