Slow Strain Rate Tensile Tests Research Articles

In-depth understanding in the effect of hydrogen on microstructural evolution, mechanical properties and fracture micro-mechanisms of advanced high-strength steels welded joints

The hydrogen embrittlement (HE) mechanism of QP980 steels laser welded joints with complex microstructures is unclear. The joint with hydrogen pre-charging fractured at the inter-critical heat affected zone (ICHAZ) in slow strain rate tensile test, and the relative loss of elongation amounted to 84.8%. Hydrogen-induced microcracks mainly initiated inside martensite (~ 60%). Hydrogen-induced crack propagation paths of the joints were transgranular propagation of martensite and intergranular propagation of ferrite/martensite interface. The HE mechanism of the joint was the combination of the effects in hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP) and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE).

Delayed fracture behavior of ultra-high-strength mooring chain steel evaluated by potentiostatic hydrogen-charging combined with SSRT

The influence of hydrogen charging potentials on the hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of R6 ultra-high strength mooring chain steel was investigated via constant potential hydrogen charging slow strain rate tensile tests combined with thermal desorption analysis. The results reveal that hydrogen charging leads to a 38.94% decrease in elongation, while the impact on tensile strength is relatively minor. Furthermore, the specimens experienced intergranular cracking at the critical potential of −1150 mV, with the size of the brittle region increasing as the negative charging potential becomes more negative. And, hydrogen atoms can cause local embrittlement of materials and increase KAM value.

Role of Ti element in the microstructure and corrosion behavior of nickel-based alloy 825

The influence of Ti content on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of nickel-based alloy 825 in acid oil and gas environments was studied. The pitting corrosion behavior and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of Alloy 825 were investigated using high-temperature and high-pressure immersion tests, electrochemical tests, and slow strain rate tensile tests. Scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and 3D microscopy were applied to analyze the microstructure and corrosion performance of the samples. The results showed that the number of inclusions and residual strain increased with the increase of Ti content, and strain concentration was found around the inclusions. The rise in inclusions led to lower pitting potential and a narrower passivation interval. In addition, the enhanced SCC susceptibility of the alloy with higher Ti content may also be attributed to the increase in inclusions.

Influence of welding defects on hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity of girth welds in X80 pipelines

Hydrogen embrittlement poses a considerable threat to girth welds in high-grade steel pipelines. This study investigated the influence of welding defects on the hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity of girth welds in X80 pipelines through slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) testing, scanning electron microscopy, hydrogen permeation test, and finite element analysis. The findings indicated that regardless of the presence of welding defects, the hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity of pipeline girth welds increases with negative current density. Welding defects can lead to a substantial increase in the hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity of girth welds and can shift crack initiation points from the surface areas of SSRT specimens to the locations of the defects. Stress concentration caused by welding defects results in the redistribution and local enrichment of hydrogen under the effect of stress-induced hydrogen diffusion, thereby leading to a considerable increase in hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity.

Inhomogeneity and anisotropy of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy manufactured by wire arc additive manufacturing: microstructure, mechanical properties, stress corrosion cracking susceptibility

ABSTRACT In this study, Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy components were prepared using wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Through multi-scale characterisation technology, performance testing and slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) testing, the microstructure, mechanical properties and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of WAAM Al-Zn-Mg-Cu components were studied, revealing the generation mechanism of inhomogeneity and anisotropy. The results show that with the increase of WAAM thermal cycles, the matrix precipitates (MPs), grain boundary precipitates (GBPs) and precipitation-free zones (PFZ) evolve in different paths and increase to varying degrees, resulting in performance decrease and increase in stress corrosion susceptibility, so the inhomogeneity is mainly attributed to differences in precipitated phases. The Inter-layer inclined to the scanning direction and the Inner-layer inclined to the building direction led to anisotropy in tensile strength and SCC behaviour, so the anisotropy is mainly attributed to the grain orientation and fracture mode.

Susceptibility of X17CrNi16-2 martensitic stainless steel to hydrogen embrittlement after conventional and deep cryogenic heat treatment

A low carbon/ high chromium martensitic stainless steel, X17CrNi16-2, was heat treated using two different hardening and tempering regimes (1050 °C/480 °C or 980 °C/600 °C) — promoting either a high strength or high toughness state, respectively − and further combined with deep cryogenic treatment (DCT) at −196 °C for 24 h. Over recent years DCT has been recognized as a promising technique to improve the properties of steel, predominantly with respect to its tensile strength, toughness and wear resistance. The influence of DCT on the hydrogen embrittlement resistance of martensitic stainless steel has not yet, however, been reported.A slow strain rate tensile test (SSRT) with simultaneous cathodic hydrogen charging was selected as the method to assess potential susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Relatively low-intensity hydrogen charging, utilizing a constant current density of 0.1 mA/cm2, in a non-corrosive, slightly alkaline buffer solution, led to a clear reduction in the ultimate tensile stress. This reduction, and therefore the HE susceptibility, was more pronounced in the steel with a higher strength (i.e. that subject to the 1050 °C/ 480 °C heat treatment condition). Furthermore, DCT did not appear to have any impact on the steel’s mechanical properties in the presence of hydrogen. Fractographic analysis showed clear evidence of HE in the hydrogen-charged specimens.This paper presents results of the SSRT tests and further fractography results, and discusses the impact of conventional and deep cryogenic treatment on HE susceptibility.

Determination of hydrogen compatibility for Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Mn cast alloys prepared by varying Al and Ni contents

Hydrogen compatibility of Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Mn cast alloys was investigated via slow strain rate tensile tests in high-pressure hydrogen gas. Four types of alloys were prepared by varying the Al and/or Ni contents. Larger Al and Ni contents resulted in more elongated microstructures with smaller grains and more precipitates, respectively. The tensile strength of the alloys increased with larger Al and/or Ni contents, whereas the ductility decreased only by adding a larger amount of Al. The maximum tensile strength was produced by adding larger amounts of both Al and Ni, which was fairly higher than those of stable austenitic stainless steels. Despite the difference in the microstructures and tensile strengths of the alloys, the hydrogen contents and hydrogen diffusivities showed no substantial difference. Additionally, their reduction in area measured after the tensile tests was not degraded by the high-pressure hydrogen gas, revealing an excellent resistance to hydrogen embrittlement.

Influence of hydrogen volume/specimen surface area ratio on hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity of X52 pipeline steel

In the transition towards green energy, long distance transportation of gaseous hydrogen by pipeline is considered to be an economically attractive solution. For safe transportation of hydrogen, it is important to conduct relevant mechanical tests in representative hydrogen environments and working conditions of pipelines to demonstrate acceptable hydrogen embrittlement resistance of the steel. One important issue is the testing condition for the ratio of gaseous hydrogen volume over specimen surface area required in mechanical testing since this has not been specified in any testing standards and codes or investigated. This study investigated this issue by performing slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) testing of an X52 pipeline steel in gaseous hydrogen with different ratios of hydrogen volume/specimen surface area, Rv/s, ml/mm2. It was found that, with increasing Rv/s ratio, the area reduction of the steel decreased and hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity increased in the range of the Rv/s ratios investigated. The saturating Rv/s ratio appeared to be ∼2.0 beyond which the effect of Rv/s ratio on hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity was relatively small. The macroscopic and microscopic observations on both the fracture and side surfaces of the SSRT tested specimens also found that the tendency to cleavage fracture increased with increasing Rv/s ratio. The results of the ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations performed also predicted a dependence of hydrogen embrittlement on hydrogen volume when Rv/s ratio is relatively small.

Effect of laser shock peening on stress corrosion cracking of TC4/2A14 dissimilar metal friction stir welding joints

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of welded joints is a significant issue that affects the widespread application of multimetal welded structures in aerospace, transportation, and other fields. This paper investigates the effect of laser shock peening (LSP) on the SCC of TC4/2A14 friction stir welded (FSW) joints with dissimilar metals. The microstructural evolution, mechanical properties, and corrosion behavior with and without LSP treatment were investigated using optical microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray analysis, electrochemical testing, and slow strain rate tensile testing (SSRT). The results showed that the LSP significantly refined the grains and induced work-hardening on the near-surface of the material. After LSP, the compressive residual stresses on the surface of the titanium and aluminium sides were −817.6 MPa and −153.6 MPa for the joint, respectively. Corrosion resistance was also improved, with the self-corrosion current density on the Al side of the joints reduced by 77% and the SCC susceptibility index (Issrt) reduced from 0.140 to 0.121. The enhanced SCC resistance of the LSP-treated TC4/2A14 dissimilar metal FSW joints is primarily due to grain refinement, work-hardening effect, and high-level compressive residual stress. These factors not only enhance the material strength and improve the pitting resistance of the joints but also prevent the initiation and propagation of SCC.

Stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of a new nickel‐based alloy in different environments

AbstractStress corrosion cracking (SCC) susceptibility of a new nickel‐based alloy C‐HRA‐2 under two types of superheated steam (SHS) (0.1 and 8 MPa) and supercritical water (SCW) (25 MPa) at 650°C was studied through slow strain rate tensile tests at a strain rate of 5 × 10−7 s−1. The results indicate that C‐HRA‐2 exhibits SCC susceptibility in both SHS and SCW, and the susceptibility increases with increasing pressure. Transgranular fracture (located inside) characterized by dimples/micropores and intergranular fracture (located at the edge) characterized by rock‐sugar‐like morphology was observed in all specimens. The brittleness of the alloy increases with the increase of medium pressure. A large number of cracks perpendicular to the loading axis were noticed on the gauge surface. The SCC mechanism of C‐HRA‐2 under steam and SCW is dynamic embrittlement.

Effect of tempering temperature on stress corrosion resistance of a low alloy high strength steel with high vanadium content

The stress corrosion resistance of a low alloy high strength steel with high vanadium content, tempered at different temperatures, was examined by electrochemical measurements and slow strain rate tensile test under different environments. Combined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the results show that three different tempering temperatures had an influence on the microstructure of this steel as well as its electrochemical behavior and stress corrosion sensitivity. With the increase of tempering temperature, the ferrite grains coarsened, the average dislocation density lowered as well as the number of vanadium carbide also decreased, though the size of vanadium carbide increased. However, the interface distortion between vanadium carbide and matrix exacerbated, resulting in the increase of the local dislocation density. Therefore, the corrosion potential and impedance decreased, meantime, the stress corrosion sensitivity aggravated.

Hydrogen-assisted cracking and damage tolerance of high-strength lath-martensite steel bars for structural applications

The paper addresses the hydrogen-assisted cracking and damage tolerance of high-strength lath martensite steel bars assessed from slow strain rate tensile tests. These were carried out on fatigue precracked specimens simultaneously charged with hydrogen in a standardized 20 % aqueous solution of ammonium thiocyanate at 50 °C and in air, at room temperature, for comparison. The fractographic analysis of the tested specimens showed the steel sensitivity to hydrogen uptake, which gives rise to the sub-critical extension of the pre-existing crack in two phases, initiation and growth, with both hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE) and hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP) being synergically involved as damage mechanisms. Despite this, the damage tolerance behavior of the steel is highly satisfactory because the crack size causing the steel failure in tension slightly exceeds the theoretical limit of plastic collapse under combined tension and bending loading, regardless of the environment aggressiveness. Although H-assisted failure loads fit the theoretical limit loads, the fast propagation of the crack under constant load beyond the small-scale yielding regime could represent a real threat for the structural use of these steel bars in aggressive media unless the service loads are limited in accordance with such behavior.

Study on the Influence of Hydrogen Blended Transportation on the Safety of Existing X70 Steel in Gas Distribution Pipeline Network

Coal to gas is one of the natural gas sources utilized in Beijing, with a hydrogen blend concentration range from 1% to 3% and reaching up to 5% in specific cases. In order to evaluate the safety of transporting hydrogen blended natural gas with X70 pipeline steel in distribution pipelines, this study first conducted the slow strain rate tensile tests under a total pressure of 4 MPa in hydrogen environment. The results show that X70 steel exhibits highly sensitive to a hydrogen blending ratio of 5%. Subsequently, four types of hydrogen compatibility tests were conducted in the above sensitive hydrogen partial pressure include the impact toughness test, fracture toughness test, fatigue crack growth test, and fastening disk pressure test. The findings demonstrated that hydrogen blended natural gas has virtual no effect on the impact and fracture toughness, with only 10% reduction in fatigue crack growth threshold. Finally, based on fatigue life analysis by fracture mechanics evaluation, it can be concluded that the existing natural gas pipe of X70 steel is capable to operate safely over 40 years under a total pressure of 4 MPa with a hydrogen blend concentration of 5%.

Hydrogen embrittlement behaviors during SSRT tests in gaseous hydrogen for cold-worked type 316 austenitic stainless steel and iron-based superalloy A286 used in hydrogen refueling station

To consider an appropriate evaluation method for hydrogen compatibility, slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) tests were conducted on high strength piping materials, cold-worked type 316 austenitic stainless steel (SUS316CW) and iron-based superalloy A286, used in hydrogen stations for two years.SUS316CW, used at room temperature in 82 MPa gaseous hydrogen, contained 7.8 mass ppm hydrogen. The SSRT test of SUS316CW was conducted in nitrogen at −40 °C. The fracture surface showed dimples, and no hydrogen embrittlement behavior was observed. While, the SSRT test of SUS316CW in 70 MPa gaseous hydrogen at −40 °C showed a slight decrease in reduction area and a brittle fracture morphology in the outer layer. This was considered to be the effect of high-pressure gaseous hydrogen during the SSRT test in addition to the pre-contained hydrogen.A286, used at −40 °C in 82 MPa gaseous hydrogen, contained negligible hydrogen (0.14 mass ppm). SSRT tests were conducted at 150 °C in 70 MPa gaseous hydrogen and in air, and showed a low relative reduction in area (RRA) value. To investigate the decrease in the RRA, we switched the gas from hydrogen to air in the middle of the SSRT test and closely examined the RRA values and fracture morphology including side cracks. The hydrogen embrittlement was found to originate from the elastic deformation region. Stress cycling in the elastic deformation region also accelerated the effect of hydrogen. These were attributed to an increase in the lattice hydrogen content. While in the plastic deformation region, hydrogen trapped in the defects and hydrogen through the generated surface cracks increased the hydrogen content at the crack tips, reducing the RRA value. And there was a good correlation between the crack lengths and RRA values.Then, hydrogen embrittlement mechanism depends on the operating conditions (stress and temperature) of the material, and evaluating the hydrogen compatibility of materials by controlling their hydrogen content and strain according to the service environment is desirable.

Performance of two high-strength steels under electrochemical corrosive and stressed conditions

The corrosion behaviors of stressed API X-80 and API X-120 pipeline steels were investigated using electrochemical and slow strain rate tensile tests after being immersed in a saline solution containing 3.5% NaCl. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were used to create images of the flawed steel samples. Corrosion rates for API X-120 pipeline steel were found to be much lower than those of API X-80 pipeline steel in both stressed and saline environments. While different oxide layers were observed on the two steels, the result showed the oxide film was of iron carbonate. It was observed that the API X-120 steel surface was latently smooth in a saline solution environment which reduced the corrosion rate. As a result, the API X-120 pipeline steel was protected and had a delayed time-to-failure in comparison to the API X-80 pipeline steel when it was tested in steel under stress and in solution medium. This failure mechanism will not only be significant to the petroleum sector, but also to the industry that produces pipelines in terms of the choice of fitting material for pipe design. Specifically, this mechanism will have an impact on the design of fittings for pipes.

Effect of strain rate on the stress corrosion cracking of TP439 stainless steel in water vapor environment at 500 ℃

The effect of water vapor on the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of TP439 stainless steel at 500 °C was investigated using slow strain rate tensile tests at three strain rates of 2 × 10–5/s, 2 × 10–6/s, and 2 × 10–7/s. Air was selected as a comparative blank test environment for the water vapor environment. The results showed that the tensile strength of the specimens increased significantly in air when the strain rate was decreased from 2 × 10–5/s to 2 × 10–7/s, while it decreased in water vapor. Dynamic strain aging (DSA) and SCC are the main factors contributing to the difference in tensile strength of the specimens in air and water vapor. The SCC of TP439 stainless steel in water vapor at 500 °C occurs at a strain rate of 2 × 10–7/s or even lower. Based on the SCC susceptibility index and SEM observation of specimen fracture, TP439 stainless steel exhibits a slight transgranular SCC in water vapor with low SCC susceptibility.

Optimizing the hydrogen embrittlement resistance by Cu addition in a low carbon high strength steel

This study used the electrochemical hydrogen permeation test and the slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) test to examine the impact of Cu addition on hydrogen embrittlement (HE) in a low carbon high strength steel. The following method explains how Cu alloying affected HE resistance. (i) Cu alloying refined the prior austenite grain size, which increased the effective area of grain/packet/block/lath boundaries and mitigated the strain localization, and thus provided additional reversible hydrogen traps, homogenized the hydrogen distribution and suppressed local accumulation of hydrogen at boundaries. (ii) Cu alloying promoted the Cu-rich precipitates, which had strong binding energy with hydrogen. Also, the “incoherent” fcc Cu-rich precipitates contrary to the “slightly coherent” Cu-rich with an energy-poor trap strongly trapped hydrogen and enhanced the HE resistance.

Study on mechanical and degradation behavior of Zn–Mn-xMg alloys under coupling effects of stress and SBF

Zinc-based implants will be subjected to combination of physiological corrosive media and stress during service in vivo. In this study, the mechanical and degradation behavior of Zn–Mn-xMg alloys under coupling effects of stress and simulated body fluid (SBF) were investigated. As a result, the ultimate tensile strength of Zn–Mn-xMg alloys decreased and incline to brittle fracture under the condition of slow strain rate tensile test in SBF. In addition, at a slower strain rate (1 × 10−6 s−1), the stress corrosion cracking susceptibility value will increase with the rise of Mg content. The immersion test under different compressive stresses shows that the corrosion will be inhibited under high pressure stress (50 MPa) compared with the lower one (10 MPa). The residual compressive strength of Zn-0.8Mn-xMg alloys decreases after immersion. A dense oxide layer could be induced with the increase of compressive stress, and it would inhibit the corrosion of the Zn-0.8Mn-xMg matrixes. These results indicate that Zn-0.8Mn-xMg alloys are expected to be a promising biodegradable material for biomedical applications.

Effect of hydrogen charging intensities and times on hydrogen embrittlement of Q&P980 steel

Q&P steel has good development prospects because of its excellent mechanical properties, but with the improvement in strength grade, hydrogen-induced delayed fracture (HIDF) is almost inevitable. In this paper, slow strain rate tensile tests and deep-drawn cup tests of Q&P980 steel under different hydrogen charging strengths and times were carried out, and the microstructure and fracture morphology were analysed by SEM. The results show that the plastic loss of Q&P980 steel was more obvious with increasing hydrogen charging intensity and hydrogen charging time, and a good elongation of 6.63% is still retained under the hydrogen content of 2.134 ppm. The deep-drawn cup samples were placed in acidic distilled water and alkaline and acidic solutions, and only a deep-drawn ratio of 1.9 showed HIDF in the three solutions. Specifically, 12 cracks were observed after soaking in HCl solution for two days. The main reason is that the martensite, austenite island and ferrite phase interface of Q&P980 steel increase stress during deformation and with the transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) effect, resulting in hydrogen segregation at the phase interface and crack initiation leading to HIDF.

On the Potential Correlation between Dynamic Strain Aging and Liquid Metal Embrittlement in T91/LBE System

In the study of the liquid metal embrittlement (LME) of the T91/lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) system, it is observed that LME occurs in a temperature interval which is similar to the temperature range where dynamic strain aging (DSA) is observed. However, the potential correlation between DSA and LME has not yet been satisfactorily investigated. This investigation for the T91/LBE system is exactly the topic of this work. For the evaluation of DSA and LME, slow strain rate tensile tests are conducted in the temperature range between 200 °C and 450 °C with strain rates of 5×10−5 s−1 and 5×10−6 s−1 in reference and a molten oxygen-depleted LBE environment. The resulting tensile properties, as well as the fracture surfaces and lateral surfaces of the failed samples, suggest a correlation between DSA and LME in the T91/LBE system. The maximum mechanical degradation of T91 is observed in the case where the effects of both DSA and LME on material properties are found to be at maximum. However, the observation of DSA was not identified as a prerequisite for LME to take place. Therefore, these results may indicate that DSA partly contributes to the ductility minimum observed in the T91/LBE system. In addition, the results of this work show that changes in the fracture surface and lateral surface are more sensitive features to claim for the potential occurrence of LME than the changes in total elongation.