Slope Failure Hazard Research Articles

Monitoring Slope Movement and Soil Hydrologic Behavior Using IoT and AI Technologies: A Systematic Review

Landslides or slope failure pose a significant risk to human lives and infrastructures. The stability of slopes is controlled by various hydrological processes such as rainfall infiltration, soil water dynamics, and unsaturated soil behavior. Accordingly, soil hydrological monitoring and tracking the displacement of slopes become crucial to mitigate such risks by issuing early warnings to the respective authorities. In this context, there have been advancements in monitoring critical soil hydrological parameters and slope movement to ensure potential causative slope failure hazards are identified and mitigated before they escalate into disasters. With the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence, and high-speed internet, the potential to use such technologies for remotely monitoring soil hydrological parameters and slope movement is becoming increasingly important. This paper provides an overview of existing hydrological monitoring systems using IoT and AI technologies, including soil sampling, deploying on-site sensors such as capacitance, thermal dissipation, Time-Domain Reflectometers (TDRs), geophysical applications, etc. In addition, we review and compare the traditional slope movement detection systems, including topographic surveys for sophisticated applications such as terrestrial laser scanners, extensometers, tensiometers, inclinometers, GPS, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), LiDAR, and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Finally, this interdisciplinary research from both Geotechnical Engineering and Computer Science perspectives provides a comprehensive state-of-the-art review of the different methodologies and solutions for monitoring landslides and slope failures, along with key challenges and prospects for potential future study.

Hazard assessment framework for statistical analysis of cut slopes using track inspection videos and geospatial information

ABSTRACT Transportation corridors constructed using through- and side-cuts are susceptible to hazardous slope failures, potentially causing infrastructure damage, operational suspensions and loss of life. To monitor the stability of known geohazards at the local scale, geotechnical investigation of each slope is typically performed to calculate a factor of safety. In many corridors, however, this method is labour-intensive due to the quantity of geohazards and statistical methods are instead used to identify hazardous sections. This paper introduces a new slope failure hazard assessment technique, utilising susceptibility mapping of geospatial information and computer vision-based analysis of right-of-way videos recorded by railroad track inspection vehicles, applied to a section of railroad track near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Combining these results, an enhanced relative hazard assessment algorithm was formulated. Using the developed framework, geohazards of primary concern were determined which should be prioritised for future geotechnical investigation and remediation efforts.

Rock slope stability assessment using kinematic analysis at Gunung Batu, Lembang, West Java, Indonesia

Discontinuity plane in the Gunung Batu area associated with the geological structure of the activity of the Lembang fault has the potential to induce rock slope failure hazard to the surrounding residential areas. A series of slope stability analyses of the Gunung Batu was carried out using rock mass rating and kinematics analysis to assess the rock slope stability in the Gunung Batu and determine the rock failure type. According to the results of the rock mass rating, the outcrop of Gunung Batu is classified as a good rock. Meanwhile, kinematic analysis from three joint sets shows that the rock failure type is characterized by wedge and toppling failures. However, the analysis results of the Slope Mass Rating (SMR) indicate that the rock slope stability in Gunung Batu is considered in partially stable to stable condition.

Evaluating earthquake-induced widespread slope failure hazards using an AHP-GIS combination

Landslides and slope failures are often caused by earthquakes. This study proposes a method to map earthquake-induced slope failure hazards that uses the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and a geographic information system (GIS) for four districts where many slope failures were induced by earthquakes (the 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi, 2016 Kumamoto, 2008 Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku, and 2004 Mid Niigata Prefecture earthquakes). The assessment system, which was based on the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience landslide distribution maps, was analyzed using the methods of previously published. We considered the relationships between the earthquake-induced slope failure distributions and landslide hazard factors (elevation, slope angle, slope type, catchment degree, geology, and vegetation). These relationships were utilized for pairwise comparisons of the factors in the AHP analysis. The slope angle, slope type, and catchment degree exerted the highest effects on the slope failure distribution in the four districts. The four earthquake-induced slope failure distributions were highly consistent with the slope failure hazard rank. These results provide a practical method for evaluating earthquake-induced slope-failure hazards.

Limit equilibrium method-based 3D slope stability analysis for wide area considering influence of rainfall

We propose a method for evaluating the risks of slope failure induced by heavy rain over a wide area by combining infiltration analysis, surface flow analysis, and slope stability analysis based on three-dimensional limit equilibrium method. The influence of the resolution of terrain data is also examined. To determine rainfall-induced water transportation, we employ an infiltration analysis, using the Green-Ampt model, and a surface flow analysis, using the diffusion wave model. For the slope stability analysis, a three-dimensional arc-slip calculation applying the Hovland method is used. The infiltration depth is obtained from the results of the infiltration analysis, whereas the simulated data are used as input data for the slope stability analysis. A region in Kamaishi City, Iwate Prefecture, Japan, where slope failures were observed during typhoon Hagibis on October 12 and 13, 2019, is selected in this study as the target area and a series of analyses are performed. The topographical survey data by an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) observed before and after the typhoon are used to identify the actual collapse locations and compare them with the results of the slope stability analysis. In addition, high-resolution topographic data of the target area using UAV data is created and differences in the factor of safety distribution with and without the UAV data for terrain data are compared and discussed. The obtained results revealed that the proposed method can roughly represent the actual slope failure, which is useful for evaluating rainfall-induced slope failure hazards. The results derived from utilizing detailed terrain data by UAV show the importance of using a high-resolution terrain model for evaluating the stability of microtopography, such as forest roads.

Assessment of physical vulnerability of buildings and socio-economic vulnerability of residents to rainfall induced cut slope failures: A case study in central highlands, Sri Lanka

In landslide-prone areas, the vulnerability of housing structures is assessed so that adaptation methods can be introduced to reduce risk. Socio-economic consideration is vital when considering cut slope failures. This paper is an attempt to assess both the physical vulnerability of housing structures and the socioeconomic conditions of residents, to provide a holistic understanding of cut slope failure disasters. Extensive fieldwork is vital to understanding the correlation between the physical vulnerability of housing structures and socio-economic conditions due to a lack of relevant data at a household level. Data was collected using a questionnaire survey and extensive field survey, conducted with randomly selected households (N = 322) in Ambagamuwa, Sri Lanka. Factors that influenced living near slope failures were identified. The semi-quantitative methodology used to assess the physical vulnerability of buildings exposed to cut slope failures combines the landslide intensity and the building resistance capacity, and was empirically evaluated by using several indicators related to building characteristics. Regression analysis was used to analyze the correlation between the physical vulnerability of buildings and socio-economic parameters, which was a novel approach. The results reveal the choice to live in areas of cut slope failure risk was dependent on a number of different priorities for communities and that 82% of houses had a moderate vulnerability. Household per capita income and education level of the household head had a significant influence on vulnerability to cut slope failures. The findings in this paper will assist decision-makers in disaster risk reduction to introduce appropriate protective measures to both buildings and cut slope failure hazards, with consideration of the socio-economic conditions of the community, to increase building resistance capacity and decrease the intensity of cut slope failures.

Spatiotemporal slope stability analytics for failure estimation (SSSAFE): linking radar data to the fundamental dynamics of granular failure

Impending catastrophic failure of granular earth slopes manifests distinct kinematic patterns in space and time. While risk assessments of slope failure hazards have routinely relied on the monitoring of ground motion, such precursory failure patterns remain poorly understood. A key challenge is the multiplicity of spatiotemporal scales and dynamical regimes. In particular, there exist a precursory failure regime where two mesoscale mechanisms coevolve, namely, the preferred transmission paths for force and damage. Despite extensive studies, a formulation which can address their coevolution not just in laboratory tests but also in large, uncontrolled field environments has proved elusive. Here we address this problem by developing a slope stability analytics framework which uses network flow theory and mesoscience to model this coevolution and predict emergent kinematic clusters solely from surface ground motion data. We test this framework on four data sets: one at the laboratory scale using individual grain displacement data; three at the field scale using line-of-sight displacement of a slope surface, from ground-based radar in two mines and from space-borne radar for the 2017 Xinmo landslide. The dynamics of the kinematic clusters deliver an early prediction of the geometry, location and time of failure.

EVALUATION OF EARTHQUAKE-INDUCED SLOPE FAILURE DISTRIBUTION USING THE AHP METHOD AND GIS

Landslides or slope failures are often caused by earthquakes. The 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi Earthquake and the 2016 Kumamoto Earthquakes in Japan caused many slope failures that were distributed both widely and densely. This study proposes an earthquake-induced slope failure hazard mapping method that uses the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and a geographic information system (GIS) for specific districts, the Atsuma district in Hokkaido and Minamiaso district in Kumamoto. The earthquakeinduced slope failure hazard assessment system used here is based on the landslide distribution (NIED catalog, Japan), which includes tens of thousands of locations in the Atsuma and Minamiaso districts. We considered the relationships between landslide distribution and landslide hazard factors (elevation, slope angle, slope type, catchment degree, geology, and vegetation). These relations were introduced to pairwise comparisons of factors in the AHP method. The AHP method was applied to evaluate the slope failure hazard rank. An earthquake-induced slope failure hazard map was created based on slope failure hazard ranks of I–V. As a result, slope angle, slope type, and catchment degree were found to exert maximum effects on slope failure distribution due to earthquakes in both the Atsuma district in Hokkaido and the Minamiaso district in Kumamoto. The two earthquake-induced slope failure distributions are almost consistent with the slope failure hazard rank. These results provide a practical method for evaluating earthquake-induced slope failure hazards.

Categorization of Slope Failure in Southern Malaysia using Total Estimated Hazard (TEHD) Method

Slope is a measure of steepness or the degree of inclination of a feature relative to the horizontal plane. One of the phenomenon or incidents of a slope was called as slope failure or landslide. Slope failure was a major natural disaster that had affected the country in terms of injuries, deaths, property damage, destruction of services, public inconvenience and economic as well as financial losses. Slope failure cases were very serious geologic hazard disaster that happened in many countries around the world. The aim of this paper is to determine the category of slope failure in the state of Johor based on Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ). Data were calculated by using Total Estimated Hazard (TEHD) value method which considered six factors effecting the slope failure, including lithology; slope steepness, topography, land use class, annual rainfall and type of soil. Data on the factors were collected from Malaysia Public Works Department (JKR) inspection form, website, and secondary data resource. After that weight for each factor were identified by referring to Landslide Hazard Evaluation Factor (LHEF) rating scheme. Then determination of LHZ was done according to TEHD values which have five hazard zones; (1) very low; (2) low; (3) medium; (4) high; and (5) very high. The results of this study found that out of total fifty two cases there were three medium hazard (MH), twenty seven high hazard (HH) and twenty two very high hazard (VHH). Comparison between actual data from JKR and total 52 locations of slope failure in Johor showed that 94% accuracy, TEHD equation could calculate potential slope failure hazards in Johor very well.

HAZARD ASSESSMENT OF SLOPE FAILURES IN CONGLOMERET AT TIKRIT, NORTHERN IRAQ

The degree and nature of slope failure hazards reflected the rock properties of unstable slopes, effective characteristics as slope high, slope angle, rock discontinuities, weathering, presence of water, and the consequence level depend on several parameters. Ditch (width, shape, volume), traffic, shoulder width to decide slopes mode and rest rock properties. Applying the Missouri Rock Fall Hazard Rating System Failure types happened and probably in the research area (Rock Fall, Toppling, Rolling). Nature parameters control hazard cases, station 7 represented alone the Tikrit bridge, water contact along a year, western shoulder of the bridge near the cliff, traffic problems, man-made, and buildings above slope apex, stations 4 and 5 people using Al-Bilaj area for swimming, fishery, and tourism, stations 1, 2, 3 and 6. Human activities are less than at stations 4 and 5. Consequently, the study area is sufferings hazard, and so should include warning suddenly failures. Stations1, 6 and 7 were classified as High-Risk High Consequence, while 2, 3, 4 and 5 were classified as High-Risk Low Consequence

Analysis of Slope Failure Behaviour Based on Real-Time Measurement Using the X–MR Method

A real-scale slope failure model experiment is performed to analyze the movement behavior of the slope during failure, and the results are analyzed through the x–MR control chart method, along with inverse displacement and various analysis sections such as K-values. As a result, the portent of failure can be identified to be about 7.7–18.3 minutes prior to the final slope failure. As a result of the analyses of changes in the control limit in the various analyses sections, it is considered that the application of K = 3 to the x-MR control chart is effective. It is observed that using the x-MR control chart technique of the inverse displacement is useful for the early prediction of the anomalous behavior of a slope, through a more quick and objective judgment. Henceforth, it is necessary to establish clear techniques for prediction and analyses of slope failure through continuous research, and those results can be used as the basic data of a slope instrumentation management standard that can contribute to the mitigation of life and property damage caused by slope failure hazards.

Evaluation of Landslide Susceptibility in Cau River Basin Using a Physical-Based Model under Impact of Climate Change

This paper evaluated the probability of landslide susceptibilities through the applica-tion of the Transient Rainfall Infiltration and Grid-Based Region Slope-Stability model in Cau river basin (Vietnam) using the scenarios-based approach under the influence of the warming climate. The tested cases were developed based on various options including rainfall amount and distribution, soil depth determination, and land-cover conditions. Input data for extreme rain events included historical rainstorm in 2013, the Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) with the durations of 24 hours and 48 hours. The results illustrated the reduction of slope stability when the land cover changed from land-use data in 2007 (Ha12) to land-use data in 2015 (Ha22). When the whole region was assumed to be replaced by soil (Ha02), the factor of safety (Fs) decreased to lower magnitude when compared to Fs value regarding to changes in land cover condition (Ha12 & Ha22) and changes in soil-depth (Ha33). The model simulations demonstrated the agreement with the slope-failure hazard association with the destabilizing factor such as slope-cutting activities at historical landslide events. Under the same land-cover and soil depth condition, the average value of factor of safety regarding to the historical rainstorm in 2013 (Ha32) declined by 0.069 and 0.189 when compared to Fs of the 24-hour PMP with the storm distribution type 3 (1332) and Fs of the 48-hour PMP with the storm distribution type 3 (2332), respectively. The results reveal that in a warming climate, changes in extreme precipitation in terms of rain-total, rain-duration, and rain-distribution would result in the expansion of slope instability in the hilly region. This application is considered as a prevailing method for landslide susceptibility analysis and would provide important information for authorities in developing adequate land-management in the river basin.

Slope failure susceptibility zonation using integrated remote sensing and GIS techniques: A case study over Jhingurdah open pit coal mine, Singrauli coalfield, India

The susceptibility of slopes in open pit coal mines to various modes of failure (i.e., plane, wedge, circular and toppling failure) could be envisaged by virtue of processing and analysis of pertinent satellite data. The aim of the present study was to integrate thematic maps generated using remote sensing image processing techniques, in order to finally produce slope failure hazard zonation maps in and around Singrauli coalfield, India. The various failure-inducing factors, variables and parameters can be extracted from different satellite data and imageries. The data acquired by different sensors such as TM, ETM+, etc., of LANDSAT series and CARTOSAT of ISRO Bhuvan was used in this study. All these data were subsequently used to create different thematic maps such as slope map, lithological map, land use/land cover map, principal component analysis map, digital elevation model (DEM), etc. An advanced analysis for extraction of lineament attributes was also undertaken.

Geomorphological characteristics of slope failures in northeast Viti Levu island, Fiji, triggered by Tropical Cyclone Winston in February 2016

The highways circumnavigating Viti Levu play a pivotal role in Fiji's socioeconomic development, and are a crucial link to transport aid during disasters. Slope failures triggered by heavy rainfall and tropical cyclones have led to considerable damage and fatalities along Viti Levu's main roads in the past. Knowledge of slope instability mechanisms is key for the successful identification and management of slope failure hazards, however, there is a paucity of such information for Fiji's main roads. Severe Tropical Cyclone (STC) Winston was the strongest cyclone on record to make landfall in Fiji and affected the Fiji Islands from the early hours of 20 February until 3 am, 21 February, 2016. We present a field reconnaissance examining the characteristics and mechanisms of slope failures induced by STC Winston along a 35 km stretch of the northern part of the Viti Levu's ring road, “Kings Road”. Approximately 61 distinct shallow, small‐scale slope failures were identified most of which were of a complex type and included earth and debris slides (planar and rotational) with a minor flow component. The trigger for the slope failures was the ~258 mm of rainfall in 24 hours after 30‐days of antecedent rainfall totalling 482 mm. This caused rapid increases in porewater pressures, especially at the contact of residual soils and the underlying weathered basement rock. Evidence of recurring slips along Kings Road indicates that contemporary slope instability is likely caused by elevated porewater pressure during high intensity rainfall events in clay‐dominated soils.

GIS based mapping and analysis of landslide hazard’s impact on tourism: a case study of Balakot valley, Pakistan

The Landslide occurs in mountainous area due to failure of slope through intensive rain and earthquake. Region wise Himalayan is one of prone area of world in context of slope failure hazard; i.e. Landslide, especially Balakot valley is well known for damage of public infrastructure, roads and badly affected the tourism sector. The objective of this study is to develop landslide hazard map and database inventory of balakot tehsil and identify the Tourist resorts landslide hazard condition and hazard prone road site and developed guidelines for tourist about hazardous site and their intensity of landside, which could be useful for tourism sector and sustainable development in balakot valley. In this study we used weighted overlay analysis in arc GIS environment on primary and secondary data raster layers, like slope map, Slope Aspect map, precipitation and seismic raster maps were used to develop landslide hazard zonation map of balakot tehsil. Slope and Aspect map were developed using 30 meter aster digital elevation model. Precipitation map were developed through Inverse Distance weighted (IDW) interpolation method on annual precipitation data acquired from Pakistan meteorological department. Seismic map were acquired from Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP). Landslide zonation map has three hazards class high, Medium and low. The landslide exposure of high hazard class 499 sq.km while, Medium class 1016 sq.km and low hazard class having 749 sq. km exposure in balakot tehsil respectively. Landslide hazard zonation mapping using GIS and RS is the best way to assess the risk of landslide hazard in mountainous areas. The study recommended that ground penetrating radar (GPR) and soil testing based research well help to understand in-depth of landslide hazard condition in balakot valley.

Anomalous Alpine fans: from the genesis to the present hazard

The present paper aims at characterising Alpine anomalous basin-fan systems, in order to develop a method for hazard assessment for such fans. The review of previous studies revealed that anomalous basin-fan systems are often associated with deep-seated slope failure and present-day hazard is associated to debris flow occurrence. Taking into account these peculiarities, a modelling approach to assess the present day hazard in anomalous fans has been developed and applied to the Sernio fan (Valtellina, northern Italy). Debris flow inundation areas have been simulated by means of a numerical model (RApid Mass MovementS (RAMMS) debris flow), which includes a routine for the sediment entrainment. The range of the model parameters was defined based on previous studies, enabling a sensitivity analysis on the debris flow runout, as well as the flow height and velocity. Numerical results point out the paramount importance of entrainment phenomena on debris flow dynamic in anomalous systems, especially with reference to the bulking factor and debris yield rate that reach very high values, typical of basins with unlimited solid supply.

Simulation of terrain attributes from LiDAR data for slope failure hazard assessment in steep forest of Okinawa Island

Simulation of terrain attributes from LiDAR data for slope failure hazard assessment in steep forest of Okinawa Island

Slope stability analysis using artificial intelligence techniques

Natural and man-made soil slope failures are complex phenomena and cause serious hazards in many countries of the world. As a result, public and private property is damaged worth millions of dollars. It is necessary to understand the processes causing failure of slopes and prediction of its vulnerability for proper mitigation of slope failure hazards. Various attempts have been made to predict the stability of slope using both conventional methods such as limit equilibrium method, finite element method, finite difference method and statistical methods. Artificial intelligence (AI) methods like artificial neural networks, genetic programming and genetic algorithms, and support vector machines are found to have better efficiency compared to statistical methods. The present study is an attempt to use recently developed AI methods such as functional networks (FNs), multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS), and multigene genetic programming (MGGP) to predict factor of safety of slope using slope stability data available in the literature. Prediction model equations are also provided, which can be used to predict the factor of safety of a slope. The performances of these AI techniques have been evaluated in terms of different statistical parameters such as average absolute error, maximum absolute error, root mean square error, correlation coefficient, and Nash–Sutcliff coefficient of efficiency. Of the available models, MARS model had better prediction performance in comparison with MGGP and FN models in terms of the above statistical criteria.

Development of the heavy rainfall induced slope failure hazard maps for the villages located in the mountainous area close to Median Tectonic Line

Development of the heavy rainfall induced slope failure hazard maps for the villages located in the mountainous area close to Median Tectonic Line

Deterministic slope failure hazard assessment in a model catchment and its replication in neighbourhood terrain

In this work, we prepare and replicate a deterministic slope failure hazard model in small-scale catchments of tertiary sedimentary terrain of Niihama city in western Japan. It is generally difficult to replicate a deterministic model from one catchment to another due to lack of exactly similar geo-mechanical and hydrological parameters. To overcome this problem, discriminant function modelling was done with the deterministic slope failure hazard model and the DEM-based causal factors of slope failure, which yielded an empirical parametric relationship or a discriminant function equation. This parametric relationship was used to predict the slope failure hazard index in a total of 40 target catchments in the study area. From ROC plots, the prediction rate between 0.719–0.814 and 0.704–0.805 was obtained with inventories of September and October slope failures, respectively. This means September slope failures were better predicted than October slope failures by approximately 1%. The results show that the prediction of the slope failure hazard index is possible, even in a small catchment scale, in similar geophysical settings. Moreover, the replication of the deterministic model through discriminant function modelling was found to be successful in predicting typhoon rainfall-induced slope failures with moderate to good accuracy without any use of geo-mechanical and hydrological parameters.