Slaughter Practices Research Articles

Prevalence, antibiogram and risk factors of thermophilic campylobacter spp. in dressed porcine carcass of Chitwan, Nepal

BackgroundCampylobacter is the primary cause of food borne gastroenteritis. Moreover, the emergence of multiple drug resistant campylobacters from poultry and pork has produced a potential threat to public health. Research addressing these issues is sparse in Nepal. So, this cross-sectional study aims at determining the prevalence, antibiogram and risk factors of campylobacters from dressed porcine carcass of Chitwan, Nepal.ResultsWe collected 139 samples of dressed porcine carcass from 10 different pork shops located in Chitwan district and processed according to OIE Terrestrial Manual, 2008, chapter 2.8.10. Antibiogram of identified Campylobacter spp. was evaluated against nine commonly used antibiotics by using disc diffusion method following CLSI guidelines. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was 38.84% (C. coli 76% and C. jejuni 24%). There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) between the prevalence rate of male (32.4%) and female (41%) carcass. Ampicillin and erythromycin showed the highest resistance (92.59% each) followed by colistin (72.2%), tetracycline (61.1%), nalidixic acid and cotrimoxazole (44.4% each), ciprofloxacin (31.5%) and gentamicin (5.56%). Moreover, 77.8% of the isolates were resistant to more than two antimicrobials. Nalidixic acid and tetracycline showed significant difference (p < 0.05) in the resistivity pattern among different species of Campylobacters. The association between prevalence rate and regular sanitization of slaughter slab equipments was significant (p < 0.05). Similarly, prevalence rate was significantly associated (p < 0.01) with chilling and contamination of intestinal content with carcass.ConclusionsThe pork meat of Chitwan is highly contaminated with antibiotic-resistant Campylobacters and slaughtering practices play significant role in contamination. It is necessary to train the butchers about hygienic slaughtering practice. The consumers as well as butchers should adopt safety measures to prevent themselves from antibiotic resistant campylobacters. The veterinary practitioners should adopt prudent use of antibiotics in pigs.

Poultry Slaughtering Practices in Rural Communities of Bangladesh and Risk of Avian Influenza Transmission: A Qualitative Study

Slaughtering sick poultry is a risk factor for human infection with highly pathogenic avian influenza and is a common practice in Bangladesh. This paper describes human exposures to poultry during slaughtering process and the customs and rituals influencing these practices in two Bangladeshi rural communities. In 2009, we conducted 30 observations to observe slaughtering practices and 110 in-depth and short interviews and 36 group discussions to explore reasons behind those practices. The villagers reported slaughtering 103 poultry, including 20 sick poultry during 2months. During different stages of slaughtering, humans, the environment, healthy poultry, and other animals were exposed to poultry blood and body parts. Women performed most of the slaughtering tasks, including evisceration. Defeathering required the most time and involved several persons. During festivals, ceremonies, and rituals, many people gathered and participated in the slaughtering of poultry. Exposure to poultry slaughtering created numerous opportunities for potential avian influenza transmission. Strategies that can be further tested to determine if they reduce the risk of transmission include skinning the carcasses of sick poultry, using hot water for defeathering and cleaning, using a bucket to contain slaughtering blood and carcass, burying the offal and encouraging handwashing.

Effect of logistic slaughter on Salmonella contamination on pig carcasses

Previous studies have shown that infected pigs are the source of carcass and slaughterhouse environment contamination by Salmonella. The present study tried to evaluate the effect of a logistic slaughter, organised according to Salmonella seroprevalence, on Salmonella contamination on carcasses. The study was performed at the beginning of slaughtering during three consecutive days. Low risk herds (8 batches) were slaughtered on day I, high risk herds (6 batches) on day II, and finally, moderate risk herds (5 batches) were slaughtered on day III. Each slaughtering day, holding pens, five points of the slaughter line, and 80 carcasses were sampled. The number of positive carcasses on days I, II and III was 7 (8.8%), 5 (6.3%) and 19 (24.4%) respectively. The results evidenced no clear effect of the logistic slaughter on carcass contamination, with a three times higher risk of finding a positive carcass when moderate Salmonella risk batches were slaughtered. Carcass contamination in low risk herds was linked to the contamination of holding pens and the slaughter line activities. On the other hand, Salmonella was not detected in any of the sampled carcasses in three out of six high risk Salmonella batches, showing that proper slaughtering practices can prevent carcass contamination. The experience reported here, demonstrates that apart from an accurate batch separation according to their seroprevalence levels, strict measures for cleaning and disinfection in the lairage and the slaughterhouse facilities are needed when logistic slaughter is performed.

Animals as Sentient Beings

Abstract The twenty-first century is witnessing a number of initiatives to improve the liv­ing conditions of animals - worldwide, at the regional and the national level. While the debate on which status should be granted to animals is still undecided, a consensus has emerged about the need for animal welfare and the (moral and legal) obligations of hu­mans towards non-human animals. Today, animal welfare and our moral obligations to­wards animals have come to be accepted as part of public morality. This article draws at­tention to this change in moral and legal thinking over the past decades. The consequenc­es of this change are put to the test with regard to a specific protective measure concern­ing animals - the prohibition of un-stunned (ritual) slaughter. It will be argued that if public morality in the 21st century does indeed include respect for the welfare of animals, it may serve as a legitimate aim to limit the freedom of religion and with that, the practice of un-stunned ritual slaughter.

Prevalence of verotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157 (VTEC O157) and compliance with microbiological safety standards in bovine carcasses from an industrial beef slaughter plant

The presence of Salmonella spp. and levels of Enterobacteriaceae and aerobic plate count were determined in 300 bovine carcasses randomly collected in an industrial cattle slaughterhouse in Catalonia (Spain) as part of a control programme to validate good slaughter practices according to Commission Regulation No 2073/2005. The verotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157 (VTEC O157), although not currently legislated, was also investigated in the same carcasses due to the importance of bovines as a reservoir for this micro-organism. Virulence genes (vtx1, vtx2 and eae), the presence of fliCH 7 and antimicrobial susceptibility were studied in E.coli O157 isolates. Levels of Enterobacteriaceae and aerobic colonies and the presence of Salmonella were within the admissible range stipulated by current legislation. However, VTEC O157 was detected in 14·7% of carcasses. Among the VTEC O157 strains tested for antimicrobial susceptibility, 65% were multiresistant. Overall, the results of this study indicate that even with good manufacturing practices, contamination with VTEC O157 can occur and cattle meat can pose a risk to human health. These results confirm the need for a review of the appropriateness of introducing antimicrobial treatments in the processing of cattle carcasses in Europe. This study describes the prevalence of verotoxigenic and multidrug-resistant E.coli O157 strains in bovine carcasses. These results suggest that despite the good manufacturing practices used in the slaughterhouse studied (the largest in Catalonia slaughtering over 81000cattle per year), the absence of verotoxigenic E.coli O157 in bovine carcasses cannot be guaranteed.

Pathogens of Interest to the Pork Industry: A Review of Research on Interventions to Assure Food Safety

AbstractPork is the most consumed meat in the world and is a source of foodborne diseases. To develop effective food safety interventions for pork, it is crucial to understand the nature of the important pathogens affecting the pork industry, their prevalence at different phases of pork production, and interventions against pathogens in pork. The purpose of this study was to outline the significance ofSalmonella,Campylobacter,Trichinella spiralis,Toxoplasma gondii,Listeria monocytogenes, and methicillin‐resistantStaphylococcus aureusto the pork industry.TrichinellaandToxoplasmaare historically relevant pathogens to pork and represent the effectiveness that preharvest intervention strategies can accomplish for the control of toxoplasmosis and trichinellosis.SalmonellaandCampylobacterare common inhabitants of swine intestines causing a high prevalence of these pathogens on the farm as well as potential contamination during slaughter. However, bothSalmonellaandCampylobactercan be reduced through on‐farm strategies, hygienic slaughter practices, and processing technologies. Methicillin‐resistantS. aureusis an emerging pathogen with increasing focus on the livestock industry and interventions pre and postharvest have been considered for reduction of this microorganism. The greatest challenge for processors isL. monocytogenesas contamination of the further processing environment requires adequate interventions for both pork and the environment. Novel technologies such as use of bacteriophages, feed additives, and high‐pressure processing are being explored as interventions against pathogens of pork. Overall, pork does contribute to foodborne diseases and various interventions are now being used against the different pathogens found in pork.

The growth of halal meat markets in Europe: An exploration of the supply side theory of religion

Over the last 15 years dedicated markets for halal meat have emerged in a number of European countries. While ethnic stores still constitute the major retail outlet for halal meat in most countries, ‘halal’ labelled meat and meat products are increasingly available in supermarkets and fast food restaurants. Market expansion has also facilitated the rise of new certification bodies, each with their own marketing strategies and interpretations of what constitutes authentic ‘halal’, who question the reliability of certification policies that allow the practice of stunning before slaughter.This paper offers a comparative analysis of these market trends and developments across four European countries. Based on research carried out during the EU funded Dialrel project, it draws attention to the ways in which EU legislation and WTO trade guidelines hinder attempts to standardize halal certification by giving equal weight to pre-stun and non-stun halal slaughter practices emanating from different regional schools of thought within Sunni Islam. Whilst recognising the impact of global politics on the identity claims of Muslim groups across Europe, the paper draws on Einstein's work on the ‘supply side’ theory of religion to demonstrate how the diverse halal practices evident in the marketing strategies of commercial and religious actors are now driving the rapid growth and development of halal meat markets across Europe.

Sarcocystis and sarcocystosis in India: status and emerging perspectives.

Sarcocystis spp. are a group of tissue cyst-forming coccidia which infect a vast range of animals as well as human beings. Found frequently in animal carcasses at slaughter, undermining their value, they have also been found associated with clinical disease. Dogs and cats are involved in the transmission. Studies in India point to a vast reservoir of infection with high prevalence rates in various livestock species. However, there is a glaring paucity of reports on the horse and Sarcocystis of the camel has remained totally unexplored so far. At least two different Sarcocystis spp. can parasitize each livestock host species. Experimental transmission studies have provided additional parameters for distinguishing the species. The clinical symptoms are generally non-specific and diagnosis in the living animal, by the presently available means, is almost impossible. Immunodiagnosis till now is beset with problem of cross-reactivity. Treatment with anti-coccidials presently tried do not seem satisfactory. Of the two zoonotic species with cattle-man and pig-man cycles, only the latter seems of some significance in India due to backyard pig-rearing and slaughter practices. It is a paradox that despite high prevalence of S. suihominis in pigs, reports of human cases are limited. This and some of the existing grey areas of information in the Indian context, have been highlighted as also possible directions for future research.

Prevalence and concentration of Arcobacter spp. on Australian Beef Carcasses.

The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) classified Arcobacter spp. as emerging pathogens in 2002. Arcobacter spp. have been isolated from numerous food products at retail and from animal carcasses and feces at slaughter. A survey was conducted to determine both the prevalence and concentration of Arcobacter spp. on pre-chill beef carcasses. Surface swab samples were collected from 130 beef carcasses at the end of processing, prior to chilling. The concentration of Arcobacter spp. was determined by a most-probable-number per square centimeter (3 by 3) method with a limit of detection of 0.12 CFU/cm(2). Of the 100 carcasses examined from export abattoirs, 20 (20.0%) were contaminated with Arcobacter spp., and 5 of these had quantifiable levels of contamination ranging from 0.12 to 0.31 CFU/cm(2). Of the 30 carcasses examined at a pet food abattoir, 25 (83.3%) were contaminated with Arcobacter spp., and 10 of these had quantifiable levels of contamination ranging from 0.12 to 0.95 CFU/cm(2). Three species of Arcobacter, A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus, and A. skirowii, were identified by PCR. Each of the species was present in an approximately equal ratio from export abattoirs. This study demonstrates that slaughter practices at export abattoirs are sufficient to maintain both low prevalence and low levels of contamination of beef carcasses with Arcobacter spp.

The Five Freedoms in the global animal agriculture market: Challenges and achievements as opportunities

This review intends to bring an overview of relevant challenges and accomplishments surrounding the farm animal welfare fi eld and identify gaps that, when fulfi lled, may lead to positive outcomes in the present, but especially for the future of the pork and poultry industries. It is not new to animal agriculture sectors, governments, animal protection organizations, and consumers that animal welfare concerns surrounding current industrialized animal production systems have increased within the last decade. Globalization, international trade, and dramatic increases in the demand for animal protein for decades to come may magnify these concerns from both practical and ethical perspectives and thus create a need for objective debates. Within this global scenario, a major challenge for all parties ought to be implementing a “clean, green, and ethical” animal agriculture, while guaranteeing that food is produced under high animal welfare standards. Sound and objective science must be the basis for establishing on-farm and slaughter standards seeking to promote better animal welfare. Currently, integrating these standards and guidelines may not be a priority for a cluster of leaders in animal production and even for policymakers, as changes are usually associated with signifi cant fi nancial and time investments. Hence, resistance arising from this confl ict may weaken opportunities for forthcoming implementation of science-based welfare-friendly production and slaughter practices. Some progress toward improving animal welfare has been observed in situations which these standards are either legislated, verifi ed under a third-party certifi cation program, or are a trade barrier by the importing market where the priority is likely economic benefi t (Promar International, 2008; Centner, 2010; Rayment et al., 2010). Direct enforcement and application of penalties for nonconformance to legislated animal care and treatment standards and policies may also be a challenge due to costs of putting infrastructure changes (building or retrofi tting) into practice and the lack of resources and trained professionals (Promar International, 2008; Rayment et al., 2010). Thus, in the authors’ opinions, one of the greatest challenges facing the scientifi c communities in the upcoming decades will be to uncover solutions while reconciling the need to safeguard animal welfare within a sustainable farm animal production system, and considering public and governmental deliberations for ethical treatment of animals. The readiness to overcome these challenges is highly dependent upon consideration of societal moral and ethical values and their infl uences in driving political and economic policy amendments in countries leading animal production. Two distinct economic and socio-political nations’ categories, that may or may not refl ect consumer general principles and concepts toward animal welfare, are witnessed globally. One category consists of industrialized developed countries, which are featured by a population that spends a minor portion of its household income on food, The Five Freedoms in the global animal agriculture market: Challenges and achievements as opportunities

A review of the humaneness of puntilla as a slaughter method

AbstractPuntilla is a traditional slaughter method in which a knife is plunged into the back of the neck to sever the spinal cord. The aim is to produce immediate collapse of the animal. Puntilla is not condoned as a stunning method by the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE) because there is concern that the animal could be conscious during and after the neck stab. Nonetheless, it is still used in some developing countries. The effectiveness and humaneness of puntilla followed by neck sticking was examined at two slaughterhouses in Bolivia. Twenty llamas (Lama glama) and 309 cattle were observed during routine puntilla without stunning. The number of neck stabs was recorded, and then brain and spinal functions (rhythmic breathing, palpebral reflex and eyeball rotation) were assessed. In addition, the presence of specific cognitive responses (such as responses to a threat stimulus and noise, as well as to flavours and odours), were also assessed in cattle. Breed, sex, live weight, body condition score and the slaughterman's experience were recorded. Repeat stabbing was needed to penetrate the foramen ovale in 45% of the llamas and two of them attempted to stand following collapse after the initial stab. All llamas showed rhythmic breathing movements at the flank following puntilla and before sticking, and 95% had a positive palpebral reflex at the same time. Twenty-four percent of the cattle needed repeat stabbing. Repeat stabbing was significantly less frequent with experienced slaughtermen, and more frequent in heavyweight animals (&gt; 380 kg). Brain and spinal responses were present in 91% of the cattle following the stabs. When cattle attempted to stand after a neck stab they were more likely to have rhythmic breathing, positive palpebral response and responsiveness to threat, noise and brief air stimulus applied to the face. These findings indicate that it is difficult in practice to penetrate the spinal cord with a single puntilla stab. Some nerve pathways are often functional after the neck stab and therefore it is highly likely that the animals remain conscious in at least some modalities for the next part of the slaughter procedure. The challenge in developing countries, however, is to find a strategy that encourages use of a method which limits suffering whilst being accessible for routine slaughter practice.

The Australasian beef industries—Challenges and opportunities in the 21st century

Accelerating global demand for beef offers great opportunity to the predominantly beef-exporting nations of Australia and New Zealand. However, Australasian industries face serious challenges in their ability to capitalize on this opportunity sustainably, including, but not limited to, The need to mitigate the environmental impact by reducing greenhouse gas emissions (mostly enteric methane) and threats to the stability and biodiversity of pastoral ecosystems. The increasing risk of incursions of devastating exotic diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease, and the consequent loss of preferential access to export markets. Increasing public awareness and concern about management, transport, and slaughter practices that, if not addressed proactively, could negatively affect domestic and export markets. Effective responses to these challenges, and therefore to industry sustainability, will require a combination of innovations in research and development, public and private investment in industry infrastructure, and development of well-informed public policy and trade diplomacy initiatives

Religious slaughter in Italy

This research aims to understand the prevalence of religious slaughter practices in Italy. Two different ways of slaughtering animals are identified. Conventional slaughter is performed with prior stunning; kosher slaughter is practiced without stunning. Halal slaughter is performed for most animals without stunning. Halal slaughter with prior stunning is acceptable for 5.90% of small ruminants. For Halal slaughter in Italy, the terms "religious slaughter with stunning" and "religious slaughter without stunning" should be used to differentiate religious slaughter practices, keeping animal welfare in perspective.

VALUATIONS OF CURRENT METHODS OF RELIGIOUS SLAUGHTER IN ITALY

The aim of this study is to estimate the scale of practices of religious slaughter and to evaluate current methods practiced in Italy. Three different approaches have been used to obtain data. Stunning before sticking is performed in 5,9% of small ruminants slaughtered according to Halal ritual. Hypothesis of violation of Dlgs 333/98 are discussed in the light of an improvement of religious slaughter practices in Italy.

Hydatidosis of slaughtered animals in Ngorongoro district of Arusha region, Tanzania

A study on the prevalence of hydatidosis in cattle, goats and sheep was carried out in Ngorongoro district of Arusha region, Tanzania. A 4-years data records from four slaughter slabs were retrieved and analysed. In addition, meat inspection was done in the same slaughter slabs for nine months and 64 households were interviewed to assess the community awareness on hydatidosis. Results showed the overall prevalence of hydatidosis to be 47.9%. Species prevalence of 48.7%, 34.7% and 63.8% in cattle, goats and sheep respectively was recorded. Of 174 cysts examined in cattle, 37 (21.3%) were fertile, 126 (72.4%) were sterile and 11 (6.3%) were calcified. Out of 215 goats and 67 sheep cysts examined, 52 (24.7%) and 26 (38.8%) were fertile, 138 (64.2%) and 38 (56.7%) were sterile, 24 (11.2%) and 3 (4.5%) were calcified respectively. The higher percentage of fertile hydatid cysts in sheep and goats coupled with the practice of backyard slaughter of sheep and goats suggests that, these animals could be important intermediate hosts for the maintenance of the domestic life cycle of E. granulosus in the locality. Questionnaire survey revealed that 17.2% of the respondents were aware of hydatidosis but non of them were knowledgeable on its transmission. Up to 84.4% of the respondents had domestic ruminants and donkeys, while 89.1% had dogs. Of the households with dogs, only 19.3% had their dogs dewormed at least once in life time. Most of the households (87.7%) had their dogs managed freely and 77.2% of the respondents reported school children to be the closest friends of dogs in the family. The prevalence of E. granulosus infection in wildlife and the possible relationship of the domestic cycle to the sylvatic cycle operating in the same area are unknown and need to be studied.

ESCHERICHIA COLI O157 IN WITHE VEAL CALVES CARCASSES

During 2006 one hundred and three white veal calves slaughtered at an abattoir in Isernia (Italy) were examined for E. coli O157 intestinal carriage and carcass contamination, using Immuno-Magnetic Separation (IMS) and multiplex PCR. Faecal material before slaughtering and carcass samples, using sponge-bag, were collected. E. coli O157 isolates were found in 10 (9,71%) faecal and 9 (8,7%) carcass samples. PCR analysis showed that all the strains from faecal and from carcass samples carried eaeA, hlyA and stx2 genes, while five strains stx1 gene. The results confirm that the slaughter practices can largely influence the rate of E. coli O157 carcasses contamination and suggest that white veal calves meat could be an important risk for human health.

SALMONELLA SPP. IN SEVERAL TISSUES AND PIG CARCASSES AND IN SLAUGHTERHOUSES: PRELIMINARY RESULTS

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the sources of direct and cross-contamination by Salmonella spp. of swine meat at slaughterhouse. The study was carried out in 4 plants of Sardinia, where pigs of different origin (Regional, Nederland, Spain, France) were slaughtered. Two-hundred ninetyfour samples were examined for Salmonella spp.: samples of caecal material, tonsils and limphonodes, carcass and liver, from 67 pigs randomly selected, and 21 environmental samples were collected. A selection of strains were submitted to phenotypical identification (API ID32E) and serotyping (N.R.C. for Salmonellosis). Salmonella spp. was isolated from the 21,4% of samples, both from pigs and environmental samples. The highest prevalence was observed in limphonodes samples (37,3%), whereas the lowest on the carcasses (10,4%). Eight different serotypes were detected, the more common was S. Derby (67%), followed by S. Livingstone (8%) and S. Typhimurium (6,3%). The 8% of the strains were unknown serotype. Our preliminary results confirm the important role of pigs in the diffusion of Salmonella in the slaughterhouses. The recovering of unusual serotypes from liver surfaces and slaughterhouse environments, pointed out the importance of a better Good Slaughtering Practices application by the workers, in order to prevent the possibility of crosscontamination of raw meats.

Risk Factors for Salmonella and Hygiene Indicators in the 10 Largest Belgian Pig Slaughterhouses

A survey was conducted to collect data on Salmonella prevalence, Escherichia coli counts (ECCs), and aerobic bacteria colony counts (ACCs) on pig carcasses after chilling at the 10 largest Belgian pig slaughterhouses during 2000 through 2004. Potential risk factors of contamination associated with production parameters, technical descriptions of the installations, and cleaning and disinfection methods were assessed during investigations in the slaughterhouses. These variables were used first in a univariate analysis and then were extended to a multivariate analysis with a logistic mixed regression model for Salmonella and a linear mixed model for ECCs and ACCs with slaughterhouses as the random effect. The results indicated high variability concerning Salmonella contamination among the 10 slaughterhouses, with prevalence ranging from 2.6 to 34.3% according to the area of origin. The median ECC and median ACC ranged from −0.43 to 1.11 log CFU/cm2 and from 2.37 to 3.65 log CFU/cm2, respectively. The results of the logistic and linear regressions revealed that some working practices such as scalding with steam, second flaming after polishing, and complete cleaning and disinfection of the splitting machine several times a day were beneficial for reducing Salmonella prevalence, ECCs, and ACCs. Changing the carcass hooks just before chilling, using water as the cleaning method, and a higher frequency of disinfection of the lairage seemed to be protective against E. coli in the multivariate mixed linear model. The monitoring of critical points, slaughterhouse equipment, good slaughtering practices, and effective washing and disinfection are the keys to obtaining good microbiological results.

Improving religious slaughter practices in the U.S.

Cet article, fondé sur trente années d’expérience dans les abattoirs, explore les aspects techniques de l’abattage des animaux de boucherie en Amérique du Nord, tout particulièrement l’abattage religieux, kasher et halal. La description minutieuse des différentes méthodes utilisées vise à éclairer les éléments posant problème et faisant atteinte au « bien-être » des animaux. L’auteur propose ensuite des mesures permettant d’améliorer le traitement des différentes espèces d’animaux et d’alléger les souffrances au moment de l’abattage.

Risk of a Rift Valley fever epidemic at the haj in Mecca, Saudi Arabia

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a zoonotic disease that affects both humans and domestic animals. In humans, it can cause a fatal haemorrhagic fever disease. When domestic animals such as sheep, goats, camels and cattle are infected, the infection may or may not be accompanied by clinical signs of disease. Both sub-clinical and clinically affected animals present a hazard as a source of infection for humans. The risk of infection is greatest at the time of killing, when aerosols of infected blood may be generated, particularly by traditional sacrificial slaughtering practices. Every year some 10 million to 15 million small ruminants may be slaughtered during the religious festivals at Mecca. Some of these animals come from the Arabian Peninsula itself, but most are imported across the Red Sea, from countries in East Africa and the Horn of Africa, where RVF is known to be enzootic and can be greatly amplified during periods of epizootic virus activity. These animals may be transported to and arrive in Mecca within the incubation period for the disease. Rift Valley fever is also known to occur in the tihama zones of both Saudi Arabia and Yemen.