Ski Training Research Articles

Cross-Country Skiing Injuries and Training Methods.

Cross-country skiing is a low injury-risk sport that has many health benefits and few long-term health risks. Some concern exists that cross-country skiing may be associated with a higher incidence of atrial fibrillation; however, mortality rates among skiers are lower than those among the general population. While continuing to emphasize aerobic and anaerobic training, training methods also should promote ski-specific strength training to increase maximum force and its rate of delivery and to build muscular endurance to maintain that power through a race. Multiple tests are available to monitor training progress. Which tests are most appropriate depends on the specific events targeted. In addition to laboratory-based tests, there also are many simpler, more cost-effective tests, such as short time trials, that can be used to monitor training progress and predict performance particularly at the junior skier level where access and cost may be more prohibitive.

Pedagogical aspects of effective use of simulator "Straps with ring" during the formation motor skills of pupils of 10 classes during the skiing training in the lessons of physical culture

Purpose : to develop a system of ski training exercises using a functional simulator at physical training lessons. Material : The study took 90 young men attended 10 class. To determine the level of formation of motor skills of pupils were tested on 7 indicators: skiing skating style 5 km; skiing classic style 3 km; pulling up on the bar; long jump with space, running 60 meters, running 3 miles, 4x9 meters shuttle run. A year after the first experiment was conducted a second experiment. Results : The developed and adapted to the physical education class simulator exercises which compounded the gravity load and moving straps with rings. The test results confirmed that the proposed method makes it possible to more effectively shape the motor skills of pupils in the process of ski training at physical training lessons. Conclusions : It is recommended to the lessons of physical training on use of ski training complex of 22 exercises that will most effectively influence the formation of motor skills of pupils.

Adjustments of muscle capillarity but not mitochondrial protein with skiing in the elderly.

Downhill skiing in the elderly increases maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and carbohydrate handling, and produces muscle hypertrophy. We hypothesized that adjustments of the cellular components of aerobic glucose combustion in knee extensor muscle, and cardiovascular adjustments, would increase in proportion to VO2max. Nineteen healthy elderly subjects (age 67.5 ± 2.9 years) who completed 28.5 days of guided downhill skiing over 3 months were assessed for anthropometric variables, cardiovascular parameters (heart rate, hematocrit), VO2max, and compared with controls (n = 20). Biopsies of vastus lateralis muscle were analyzed for capillary density and expression of respiratory chain markers (NDUFA9, SDHA, UQCRC1, ATP5A1) and the glucose transporter GLUT4. Statistical significance was assessed with a repeated analysis of variance and Fisher's post-hoc test at a P value of 5%. VO2max increased selectively with ski training (+7 ± 2%). Capillary density (+11 ± 5%) and capillary-to-fiber ratio (12 ± 5%), but not the concentration of metabolic proteins, in vastus lateralis were increased after skiing. Cardiovascular parameters did not change. Fold changes in VO2max and capillary-to-fiber ratio were correlated and were under genetic control by polymorphisms of the regulator of vascular tone, angiotensin converting enzyme. The observations indicate that increased VO2max after recreational downhill ski training is associated with improved capillarity in a mainly recruited muscle group.

Correlations between Biomechanical Characteristics, Physical Characteristics, and the Ability to Maintain Dynamic Sitting Balance on an Unstable Surface in the Disabled with Spinal Cord Injury

Objective: This study aims to analyze the factors that affect the ability to maintain dynamic sitting balance (DSB), biomechanical characteristics, and physical characteristics in spinal cord injuries (SCI) patients. Background: Virtual ski training systems, ski equipment, and training protocols for disabled skiers are being studied to spread awareness. However, few studies have been reported on the sitting balance ability associated with chair mono skiing. Method: A dynamic sitting balance border system was built to investigate the ability to maintain dynamic sitting balance in SCI patients. Trunk muscle activity was evaluated by electromyogram while conducting dynamic sitting balance tests. The trunk muscle strength was tested with a portable handheld dynamometer. Physical activity scores were measured with the physical activity recall assessment. Results: There were high levels of correlation between the ability to maintain DSB and trunk flexor strength, extensor strength, rotator strength, and physical activity score. However, height, weight, and injury level in SCI patients were not correlated with the ability to maintain DSB. Additionally, strong negative correlations were found between muscle activities of the external oblique and lumbar erector spinae muscles and the ability to perform the backward tilt test. Trunk extensor muscle activity during the ball lifting test was significantly higher than in other tests. Conclusion: The results indicate that improving trunk muscle strength and physical activity can increase the ability to maintain DSB. Application: The findings of a close relationship between trunk strength, physical activity, and the ability to maintain DSB need to be reflected in the chair mono ski training program.

Physiological Responses in Alpine Skiers during On-Snow Training Simulation in the Cold

This study examined the physiological responses to cold stimulus during intermittent high-intensity exercise simulating on-snow alpine ski training. 7 male alpine skiers performed intermittent high-intensity exercises composed of 4 bouts of cycling exercise at 140% VO 2max intensity for 30 s with 10-min rests on a cycle ergometer in cold (1°C) and control (22°C) conditions. The subjects wore racing suits, middle layers and half pants designed for alpine skiers. Rectal temperature and mean skin temperature were lower in the cold condition than in the control condition (36.8 ± 0.5 vs. 37.1 ± 0.1°C and 28.4 ± 0.6 vs. 33.3 ± 0.6°C, respectively). Oxygen consumption during rests and the last 2 bouts of exercise was higher in the cold condition than in the control condition. Although plasma noradrenaline and serum triglyceride were higher in the cold condition than in the control condition, plasma glucose, adrenaline and serum glycerol were lower. Serum free fatty acid and plasma lactate concentrations did not differ significantly between the 2 conditions. These results indicate that a cold stimulus affects body temperature and energy metabolism and may lead to a decrease in exercise capacity in alpine skiers during on-snow training.

Amazing Routines in Beginning Stages of Mountain Skiing Training

Problem Statement: Delivering the first skiing session by teaching pirouettes, both individually and in pairs for to reached at the operational goal: initiation into the ‘ploughing’ procedure.Methods Experiment, technical evaluation, distance and surface measuring, psychological evaluation.Findings and results: In comparison to more traditional methods, this lasts 63% less time, uses tracks 4 times less in size, it has higher teaching density and is more appealing.Conclusions It is a quick, appealing way to start in skiing. It is more than suitable for subjects with advanced motor skills as well as- children; very functional when the environment requires activisation of the group (thick fog, cold, heavy snowfall) and- on small tracks; recommended for adventurous and adrenalin oriented groups.

Physical activities in nature and their inclusion in school curricula

Objective: The objective of this paper is to show what importance teachers place on physical education in nature during physical education classes and how they solve their inclusion in tuition as part of the school curricula introduced in basic and secondary schools in the Czech Republic. Method: All data was obtained by survey-based investigation. The survey contained closed and scaled questions, as well as questions that respondents could supplement with their own responses. Results: Compared with winter ski courses, summer tourism courses and water tourism courses are held significantly less frequently at schools. An interesting finding is that these courses are more popular at secondary schools than they are at basic schools. We assume that this is largely for safety reasons, especially for water tourism courses. The results show that ski courses have found their place in virtually all school curricula and are implemented on a regular basis. The traditional method remains in use for the organisation of courses, with all aspects of a course being put together by the organising school.An increasing degree of emphasis is being placed on the staffing and organisation for ski training.

The effects of short-term ski trainings on dynamic balance performance and vertical jump in adolescents

Skiing is a sport where balance and strength are critical and which can be practiced actively especially from early years to old age. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of a 5-day training of skiing skills on dynamic balance performance and development of vertical jump strength in adolescents. Sixteen adolescent volunteers who do not regularly exercise enrolled in the study (age 13.8±.5 years, height 160±8.5 cm, weight 56.6±10.9 kg and body mass index (BMI) 22±3.1 kg/m2). The subjects participated in an intensive ski training program for 5 days for a total of 20 h (4 h of training and 2 h of free exercise). Their dynamic balance performance (on a Sport Expert MED-SP 300 balance platform) and vertical jump (strength) (New Test 2000) were measured before and after the training program. Our study shows that medial/lateral (M/L) balance improved after a 5-day ski training (p<0.05). However, no positive development was observed in postural balance in the anterior/posterior (A/P) plane. This study shows that repeating short-term trainings in sports branches such as skiing could have a more pronounced effect on the improvement of balance and strength. Key words: Ski training, dynamic balance, postural control, vertical jump, adolescence

Electrolyte-carbohydrate beverage prevents water loss in the early stage of high altitude training

To prevent water loss in the early stage of high altitude training, we focused on the effect of electrolyte-carbohydrate beverage (EC). Subjects were 16 male university students who belonged to a ski club. They had ski training at an altitude of 1,800 m. The water (WT) group drank only water, and the EC group drank only an electrolyte-carbohydrate beverage. They arrived at the training site in the late afternoon. The study started at 7 pm on the day of arrival and continued until noon of the 4(th) day. In the first 12 hours, 1 L of beverages were given. On the second and third days, 2.5 L of beverages were given. All subjects ate the same meals. Each morning while in fasting condition, subjects were weighed and blood was withdrawn for various parameters (hemoglobin, hematocrit, sodium, potassium and aldosterone). Urine was collected at 12 hour intervals for a total 60 hours (5 times). The urine volume, gravity, sodium and potassium concentrations were measured. Peripheral oxygen saturation and heart rate were measured during sleep with a pulse oximeter. Liquid intakes in both groups were similar, hence the electrolytes intake was higher in the EC group than in the WT group. The total urine volume was lower in the EC group than in the WT group, respectively (p<0.05). Plasma volume decreased in the WT group and increased in the EC group but a significant difference was not observed in the final value. Aldosterone concentration tended to be less in the EC group than in the WT group. Electrolyte-carbohydrate beverage in the early stage of high altitude training may be effective in decreasing urinary output and preventing loss of blood plasma volume.

Erythropoietin, 2,3 DPG, Oxygen Transport Capacity, and Altitude Training in Adolescent Alpine Skiers

Rapid growth during adolescence caused by metabolic changes and their metabolic response to anaerobic and aerobic exercise differs considerably from that in adults and this is especially true in the responses to stresses, such as altitude exposure. However, there is little information on the suitability of exercise training at altitude for young athletes. Six male Korean adolescent alpine skiers (13-17 yr), with a skiing career of 3-5 yr, participated in the study. All subjects were exposed to an altitude of 2700 m (8858 ft) for 5 wk and altitude exposure consisted of 6 d/wk of training (4-5 h/d), with living quarters at 2100 m (-6890 ft) (Tignes, France). The 5 wk of ski training at altitude were maintained at the same level (the same number of slalom and giant slalom skiing trials) as at sea level. There was a significant increase in oxygen transport capacity, despite decreased erythropoietin (EPO) production (-31%) after altitude training. Red blood cell (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit (Hct), and 2,3 DPG concentrations increased significantly during altitude exposure and after return to sea level. Results indicate that applying altitude training in adolescent skiers may improve their endurance performance. However, EPO production during altitude training needs to be evaluated in larger future studies.

The epidemiology of cross country skiing injuries

There is little literature about the epidemiology of injuries sustained while conducting cross country skiing due to the disparate nature of these athletes. The Royal Marines regularly deploys to Norway...

The Opinion of Elementary School Teachers on Ski Training for Teachers

The Opinion of Elementary School Teachers on Ski Training for Teachers

Glucose homeostasis and cardiovascular disease biomarkers in older alpine skiers

Alpine skiing and ski training involves elements of static and dynamic training, and may therefore improve insulin sensitivity. Healthy men and women who where beginners/intermediate level of alpine skiing, were studied before (Pre) and immediately after (Post) 12 weeks of alpine ski training. After an additional 8 weeks a third test (retention study, Ret) was performed. The subjects were randomized into an intervention group (IG, n=22, age=66.6 ± 0.4 years) or a control group (CG, n=20, age=67.0 ± 1.0 years). Plasma glucose decreased (P<0.05) in CG, but increased (P<0.05) again at Ret, while a continued decrease was seen in IG (Ret vs Post, P<0.05). Plasma insulin decreased (P<0.05) with training in IG, while no effect was seen in CG. HOMA2 index for insulin resistance decreased (P<0.05) from 0.80 ± 0.08 to 0.71 ± 0.09 in IG. The value at Ret (0.57 ± 0.08) tended (P=0.067) to be different from Post. In CG the corresponding values were 0.84 ± 0.09, 0.81 ± 0.12 and 0.70 ± 0.09, respectively. Total cholesterol and LDL decreased in both IC and CG, a result, interpreted as seasonal variation. Biomarkers for endothelial function and low-grade inflammation were not elevated and similar in IG and CG, and did not change. Alpine ski training improves glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity in healthy, elderly individuals.

Effect of alpine skiing training on tendon mechanical properties in older men and women

Strain is one of the parameters determining tendon adaptation to mechanical stimuli. The aim of this study was to test whether the patellar tendon strain induced during recreational alpine skiing would affect tendon mechanical properties in older individuals. Twenty-two older males and females (67 ± 2 years) were assigned to a 12-week guided skiing programme (IG) and 20 aged-matched volunteers served as controls (CG). Patellar tendon mechanical properties and cross-sectional area (CSA) were measured before and after training, with combined dynamometry and ultrasonography scanning. None of the variables changed significantly in the CG after training. In the IG, tendon stiffness and Young's modulus were increased (respectively, 14% and 12%, P<0.01), without any significant change in tendon CSA. In addition, changes in tendon stiffness were blunted in women (9%) compared with men (19%). Serum IGF-1 concentration tended to be lower in women (-19%, P=0.07). These results demonstrate that the mechanical stimulus induced by alpine skiing is sufficient to elicit adaptive changes in patellar tendon mechanical and material properties in older subjects. Furthermore, the present sex-specific adaptations are consistent with previous reports of lower collagen metabolic responsiveness in women and may be underpinned by anthropometric and metabolic differences.

Stimulation Demand in Skiers Versus Skiing Training Results

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Young elite cross-country skiers and low back pain—A 5-year study

Objectives To evaluate possible changes in spinal curvature over a period of 5 years of an elite cross-country skiing squad, and to study whether there are any differences in this respect between individuals who report low back pain and those how do not. Participants Fifteen young cross-country skiers (M age=13.6±0.9) participated voluntarily throughout the entire study period. Main outcome measures Debrunner's kyphometer was used for measuring the difference between thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis of the spine. All subjects also answered a questionnaire including questions about ski-related low back pain, the amount of ski training, and participation in other sports. Results The results at the end of the 5-year period comprise data from 15 skiers (M age=18.5±0.9 years). The relationship between thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis increased from 3.5° to 13.1°, respectively ( p = 0.0001 ). Of the 15 elite cross-country skiers, seven reported low back pain at the 5-year examination. At the 5-year follow-up, skiers with low back pain showed significantly higher relationship between thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis than did those skiers without low back pain, 18.2° and 10.5°, respectively ( p = 0.035 ). Of the eight elite cross-country skiers without low back pain, seven were also involved in other sports ( p = 0.005 ). Conclusions Based on these findings, our advice is that adolescent cross-country skiers also should participate in other physical activities besides cross-country skiing.

Effect of Ski Training Program on Students&apos; Self-Efficacy

Effect of Ski Training Program on Students&apos; Self-Efficacy

Experimental Model of the Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient in Alpine Skiing

Aerodynamic properties are one of the factors that determine speed performance in Alpine skiing. Many studies have examined the consequences of this factor in downhill skiing, and the impact of postural modifications on speed is now well established. To date, only wind tunnel tests have enabled one to measure aerodynamic drag values (a major component of the aerodynamic force in Alpine skiing). Yet such tests are incompatible with the constraints of a regular and accurate follow-up of training programs. The present study proposes an experimental model that permits one to determine a skier's aerodynamic drag coefficient (SCx) based on posture. Experimental SCx measurements made in a wind tunnel are matched with the skier's postural parameters. The accuracy of the model was determined by comparing calculated drag values with measurements observed in a wind tunnel for different postures. For postures corresponding to an optimal aerodynamic penetration (speed position), the uncertainty was 13%. Although this model does not permit an accurate comparison between two skiers, it does satisfactorily account for variations observed in the aerodynamic drag of the same skier in different postures. During Alpine ski training sessions and races, this model may help coaches assess the gain or loss in time induced by modifications in aerodynamic drag corresponding to different postures. It may also be used in other sports to help determine whether the aerodynamic force has a significant impact on performance.

ANTIOXIDANT STATUS OF U.S. BIATHLETES DURING ALTITUDE TRAINING

The goal of this study was to assess antioxidant status during a 10-day cross-country skiing training camp. Participants included four U.S. Biathlon Team members (3 male, 1 female, age = 23 yr, VO2max = 70.4 ml/kg/min male, 54 ml/kg/min female). Training took place at 2,100 m and consisted of 2–4 hours per day of cross-country skiing at approximately 60–70% VO2max. Blood samples for the determination of retinol, beta-carotene, alphatocopherol, gamma-tocopherol as well as the ratio of reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG) were measured before and after exercise on days 1 and 10. Plasma vitamin measures were determined by HPLC analysis and the GSH/GSSG was determined colorimetrically by OXIS Research, Portland OR. A comparison between the athletes' vitamin status and published normative values indicated that all athletes were within normal ranges on both days 1 and 10 for all antioxidant vitamins measured. A decrease in the GSH/GSSG ratio is a sensitive marker of oxidative stress and indicates a decrease in the reductive capacity of the red blood cell. On day 10, the post-exercise GSH/GSSG ratio (153:1) was significantly lower than the pre-exercise value (241:1, p = .016). Also, the GSH/GSSG ratio following exercise on day 10 (153:1) was lower than the post-exercise value on day 1 (202:1, p = .06). These data indicate a change in redox status after an exercise bout and over 10 days of aerobic training at altitude. Although antioxidant vitamin status was normal throughout the training camp, the redox status was shifted toward an oxidative state. Oxidative stress is often regarded as a negative consequence of training, however, it is possible that it may provide a stimulus for physiological adaptation.

スキーおよび体操競技選手の体平衡

The effects of sports training on equilibrium function were evaluated with Equi-TestTM. Posture control of athletes was evaluated by sensory organization test (SOT) and movement coordination test (MCT). The SOT evaluates postural stability under 6 conditions such as a reduction in visual and/or somatosensory information. The MCT evaluates the strength of postural response to the acute translations of force plates. The protocols and results were as follows:(1) Two groups were tested. Group 1 included 14 ski runners from the ski club at our university. Group 2 was a 12-subject control group with no sports training. Both groups were tested in October before the ski season and in April of the next year, after the ski season. In both examinations, the postural stability in SOT of the ski group was better than that of the control group in conditions 4 to 6. Furthermore, in conditions 3 to 6, the stability of ski group in April had improved compared to that in October, suggesting that ski training contributed to the improvement of equilibrium function. The response strength in backward translation had significantly decreased in April in both groups, but that in forward translation significantly decreased only in the ski group, suggesting that the skilled skiers might become able to utilize minimal appropriate response strength to perturbations.(2) Thirteen female high school gymnasts were tested. In SOT, correlation between postural stability and the number of training years was analyzed. The findings showed that postural stability tended to become worse as the number of training years increased, which may due to the specificity of training for this sport.The findings in these two studies suggest that equilibrium function varies among sports.