Skarn Research Articles

Bronze Age metallurgical slags from the South Urals: types, mineralogy and copper sources

In the paper, an investigation of copper metallurgical slags found in the South Urals and dating to the Bronze Age between 4000 and 1300 BCE is carried out. Four main mineralogical types are distinguished according to their mineral composition: Cr-rich spinel containing olivine, sulphide-containing olivine, sulphide containing glassy and pyroxene type. First type of slags is composed of zoned olivine, magnetite and glass having relicts of Cr-rich spinels and serpentinites that indicate the use of azurite-malachite ores from ultrabasic rocks. These finds were determined in sites of the Early Yamna period in the Cis-Urals and are widespread in Sintashta culture. The second type is composed of skeletal olivine crystals, magnetite and wustite with copper sulphides droplets. It type belongs to Alakul period. The raw material sources are sulphide ores from a secondary enrichment zone of VMS, skarn and Cu-porphyry deposits. The sulphide containing glassy type is mainly composed of glass with copper and sulphide droplets. The slags were recovered in the Srubna sites. The raw material sources were rich sulphide ores of cupriferous sandstones. The pyroxene type is composed of augite, pigeonite and/or wollastonite with a small amount of glass and sulphide inclusions. According to the composition of glass, slags can be distinguished into the Cis-Uralian type, including cupriferous sandstones, and Trans-Uralian type having various volcanogenic-hydrothermal deposits as raw materials. Essential Ca, P, Ba and REE impurities in slag glass demonstrate the use of barite, calcite and bone fluxes. The phase diagrams, crystallisation temperatures and experimental data revealed that slag melt temperatures ranged between 1150–1300 ° C.

Spatiotemporal distribution, geological characteristics and metallogenic mechanism of tungsten and tin deposits in China: An overview

Tungsten and tin are important strategic and critical mineral resources, as well as one of China’s most abundant mineral resources. Their distribution is mainly concentrated in the South China block, followed by the Kunlun-Qilian-Qinling-Dabie orogenic belt, the Tianshan-Xingmeng orogenic belt, and the Tibet-Sanjiang orogenic belt. The tungsten and tin resources in South China are mainly concentrated in the Nanling tungsten-tin metallogenic belt, the northern Jiangxi-southern Anhui tungsten metallogenic belt, the Youjiang-Guibei tin metallogenic belt, and the southeast coastal tungsten-tin metallogenic belt. The formation of tungsten and tin deposits in China spans a large period of time, from Proterozoic to Cenozoic, but the Mesozoic Yanshanian mineralization is the most important. There are five main types of primary tungsten-tin deposits in China, namely, porphyry, greisen, skarn, quartz vein, and cassiterite-sulfide. In addition, there are also other types such as altered granite, hydrothermal breccia, and low-temperature hydrothermal vein. Many tungsten-tin deposits are often not of a single genetic type, and multiple mineralization types commonly co-exist in a deposit. Most of the granitoids associated with tungsten mineralization are thought to be S-type granite derived from partial melting of continental crustal materials, while the granitoids associated with tin deposits include I-type and A-type in addition to the S-type granite. Crust-mantle interaction plays an important role in generation of the Sn-bearing granites. Nd-Hf isotope studies show that beside the Sn-bearing granites, some W-bearing granites also have mantle-derived contributions. Whether it is W-bearing or Sn-bearing granite, a highly evolved feature is often more favorable for mineralization. The composite granitoids in South China are closely related to multiple tungsten-tin mineralization. Many tungsten and tin deposits in China are often co-produced with mineralization of other rare metals. According to the combination of ore elements, they mainly include the following three types: W-(Sn)-Be (including Sn-Be), W-(Sn)-Nb-a (including Sn-Nb-Ta), and Sn-Li-Rb-Nb-Ta. All of them are closely related to highly evolved peraluminous granites. The source of ore-forming fluids in most tungsten-tin deposits is closely related to magmatic hydrothermal activity, and some deposits also have characteristics of multi-source fluids. The temperature and salinity of ore-forming fluids vary widely, and the composition of the fluid system is also complex in many cases. Oxygen fugacity plays an important role in the transportation and precipitation of tin, but such an effect on tungsten is still in debate. The formation of many tungsten-tin deposits is generally controlled by a number of factors, such as temperature dropping, fluid mixing, fluid immiscibility, fluid boiling, and water-rock interaction.

مطالعه کانی شناسی و فرآیندهای اسکارنی شدن در اسکارن مس- آهن آوان، شمالخاور خاروانا، شمال باختر ایران

اسکارن مس- آهن آوان در نتیجه نفوذ باتولیت گرانیتوئیدی قره داغ به‌ داخل سنگهای کربناته ناخالص کرتاسه بالایی تشکیل شده است. اسکارن آوان متشکل از پهنه های مرمر، اگزواسکارن و اندواسکارن بوده و بخش اصلی آن پهنه اگزواسکارن، است. بررسیهای کانی شناسی بیانگر آن است که پهنه اگزواسکارن شامل زیرپهنه های گارنت اسکارن، پیروکسن- گارنت اسکارن و کانه اسکارن است. مهمترین کانی کالک سیلیکاته بی آب در پهنه اگزواسکارن، گارنت و ترکیب آن اوگراندیتی (Ad53-89) است. برخی بلورهای گارنت، منطقه‌بندی دارد و ترکیب آنها به طرف حاشیه‌ها به آندرادیت خالص (Ad99) میل می‌کند. کلینوپیروکسن موجود در زیرپهنه پیروکسن- گارنت اسکارن از نوع دیوپسید (Di75-96) است. زیرپهنه کانه اسکارن از کانه‌های مگنتیت، هماتیت، پیریت، کالکوپیریت، بورنیت، مالاکیت و گوتیت تشکیل شده است. وجود میزان محدود ولاستونیت در مجموعه کانی شناسی اسکارن آوان، هم‌رشدی بلورهای گارنت و کلینوپیروکسن و نبود هاله واکنشی بین این دو کانی و نبود بافتهای جانشینی نشان‌دهنده آن است که این کانیها به‌صورت هم‌زمان در محدوده دمایی C°600- 430 و فوگاسیته اکسیژن بیشتر از 10-26 تشکیل شده‌اند.

پترولوژی و سن سنجی زیرکن به روش U-Pb در توده های نفوذی مناطق A، C جنوبی و دردوی، معدن سنگ آهن سنگان خواف

معدن سنگ آهن سنگان خواف در 300 کیلومتری جنوب‌شرقی مشهد، در شرق کمربند آتشفشانی- نفوذی خواف- کاشمر- بردسکن قرار دارد. توده های گرانیتوئید در سه محدوده معدن سنگ آهن سنگان شامل نواحی A، C جنوبی و دردوی مورد مطالعه قرار گرفتند. سه توده نفوذی بیوتیت هورنبلند مونزونیت پورفیری، بیوتیت سینیت و سینوگرانیت در مناطق مورد مطالعه شناسایی شد. براساس روابط قطع‌شدگی صحرایی، عدم وجود گارنت اسکارن و مگنتیت در مرز این توده ها و آلتره‌شدن آنها توسط محلول کانه دار بعدی، این توده های گرانیتوئیدی از اسکارن مگنتیت دار قدیم‌ترند. سن سنجی زیرکن به روش U-Pb سن آنها را 42 میلیون سال قبل (ائوسن‌ میانی) تعیین می‌کند. مقدار پذیرفتاری مغناطیسی آنها بین SI5-10×310 تا SI5-10×900 است، بنابراین متعلق به گرانیتوئیدهای سری مگنتیت (اکسیدان) و از نوع I هستند. براساس بررسیهای ژئوشیمیایی، توده های نفوذی عمدتا از نوع متاآلومینوس، منیزیمی، آلکالی‌کلسیک تا آلکالیک و شوشونیتی تا اولتراپتاسیک می باشند. غنی‌شدگی نسبی عناصر LREE نسبت به HREE و عناصر LILE (Sr, Cs, Rb, K and Ba) نسبت به HFSE (Nb, Ta, Ti, Hf, Zr) مؤید تشکیل ماگما در زون فرورانش است. این ماگما از ذوب‌بخشی اندک (کمتر از 1) یک منشأ لرزولیتی گارنت- اسپینل دار (با مقدار کم گارنت) حاصل‌شده که با پوسته قاره ای آلودگی پیدا کرده است. وجود اندک گارنت به‌عنوان کانی باقی‌مانده در منشأ این توده ها با نسبت پایین (La/Yb)N (29/6 تا 73/34) توجیه‌پذیر است. مقدار بالای نسبت Rb/Sr و LILE/HFSE و مقدار بالای K2O، Th و Nb نقش اختلاط پوسته قاره ای را روشن می کند. بررسیهای پترولوژیکی و تعیین سن دقیق توده های نفوذی موجود در معدن سنگان به‌عنوان بخشی از کمربند آتشفشانی- نفوذی خواف- کاشمر- بردسکن، به شناخت هر‌چه بهتر جایگاه تکتونوماگمایی این کمربند و نیز چگونگی ارتباط توده های نفوذی با کانی سازی برای اکتشاف بیشتر در آینده کمک خواهد کرد.

MINERALOGY AND ORIGIN OF COPPERGOLD BEARING SKARN WITHIN THE BATU HIJAU PORPHYRY DEPOSIT, SUMBAWA ISLAND, INDONESIA

The aim of this study ist o emphasize on the origin of copper-gold bearing skarn mineralization at the Batu Hijau deposit which is located at the southwestern corner of Sumbawa Island, Indonesia. Although most skarn are derived from limestones, nolimestone is known in the Batu Hijau deposit. Ca-rich andesitic volcaniclastic host rocks favor skarn alteration within the Batu Hijau deposit. The t ype of skarn can be classified as calcic-exoskarn, and locally controlled by faults and fractures. Two major stages consisting of four sub-stages of skarn forming processes can be divided by the mineral assemblages of skarn as prograde and retrograde stages. The prograde skarn consists of clinopyroxene and garnet ± magnetite formed at the trapping temperature of 440°-480 °C with 34-38 wt% NaCl eq. while retrograde skarn alteration is dominated by Fe-rich minerals such as amphibole and epidote formed at the trapping temperature down to 340°-360°C with 4-8 wt% NaCl eq. Opaque minerals include chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalertite, and minor galena and bismuth- telluride. Gold was precipitated in the retrograde stage associated with bismuthtelluride minerals. The sulfur isotope data of skarn ranges from +0.1 to +1.7‰ (sulfide), and porphyry systems range from 0.04 to1.4‰ and 10‰ to 15‰ (sulfide and sulfate respectively). According to the fluid inclusion and sulfur isotope data, the origin of skarn and porphyry system can be suggested to be that the magmatic origin. Furthermore, the sulfur isotope data of the deposit evidently shows that a porphyry- related skarn mineralization exhibiting transition from one style to the next can be relatively rapid. The result of this research has indicated that the range of porphyry-related deposits, skarn and porphyry systems can form during a single prolonged hydrothermal event.

Polymetallic mineralization of the Boranja orefield, Podrinje Metallogenic District, Serbia: zonality, mineral associations and genetic features

In the Serbo-Macedonian Metallogenetic Province, which is a part of the Alpine metallogenic unit, the ore deposits lie in number geotectonic units; they embrace part of the Vardar Zone, Serbo-Macedonian massif, and a small part of the Dinarides. This metallogenic province has been delineated mostly by reference to the Neogene metallogeny, related predominantly to granodiorite magma. These deposits include the most significant Pb-Zn and Sb deposits in Serbia, as well as smaller Bi, Mo, Cu, Fe, Sn, Au and minor U, W and Hg deposits. The Podrinje Metallogenic District belongs to the Serbo-Macedonian Metallogenetic Province. Smaller metallogenic provinces are isolated within the scope of the following orefields: Cer (Northwest Serbia), Boranja (West Serbia), and Srebrenica (East Bosnia & Herzegovina). Polymetallic deposits in the Boranja orefield are genetically related to the emplacement of a Tertiary granodiorite complex. It consists primarily of a large number of sulfide deposits with Pb-Zn, and Sb; with subordinate Cu, As, Bi and Ag. Among them, the presence of small magnetite deposits, connected to the pyrometasomatic (skarn) stage is significant. Skarns are of calcic type, and were formed along contacts of Triassic limestones and quartz diorites. Ore minerals are similar among the various types of orebodies in the Boranja orefield and consist of sulfides (pyrrhotite, pyrite, marcasite, chalcopyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, cubanite, mackinawite, valleriite, covelline, chalcocite, bismuthinite, molybdenite, sphalerite, mercurian sphalerite, greenockite, galena, arsenopyrite, stibnite, duranusite, realgar, orpiment, cinnabar, metacinnabar); sulfosalts (bursaite, cannizzarite, cosalite, aikinite, ustarasite, tetradymite, ferrian tetrahedrite, argentian tetrahedrite, pyrargyrite, diaphorite, freieslebenite, schirmerite, fizelyite, stannite, jamesonite, boulangerite, bournonite, As-bournonite, falkmanite, zinkenite, fuloppite, robinsonite, plagionite, twinnite, geocronite, gratonite); telluride (calaverite); native metals and alloys (gold, silver, electrum, bismuth, arsenic); oxides and complex-oxides (magnetite, hematite, rutile, anatase, scheelite, powellite, valentinite, senarmontite, kermesite, adamite, arsenolite); and gangue minerals (silicates, carbonates, fluorite, calcite, siderite, Mn-Zn siderite, fluorite, apatite, barite, dolomite, anglesite, cerussite, smithsonite, otavite, malachite, azurite, scorodite, quartz, limonite, organic matter). Minerals of the titled orefield were formed in several successive stages, which together correspond to a unique cycle of mineralization that is genetically related to the subvulcanic-plutonic intrusion of the Neogene-aged magmatic Boranja complex. Mineral associations, which have spatial-zonal arrangement, are rhythmically developed from the Tertiary granodiorite of Boranja to outside surroundings: A) Fe-Cu(Bi) belt → B) Pb(Ag)-Zn belt → C) Sb(As) belt → D) CaF 2 (Pb-Zn) belt.

Vesuvianite: Synthesis and Occurrence in Skarn

Vesuvianite: Synthesis and Occurrence in Skarn

STRATIGRAPHY AND TECTONIC AND METAMORPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE PORTO AZZURRO UNIT IN THE MONTE CALAMITA PROMONTORY (SOUTHEASTERN ELBA ISLAND, TUSCANY)

The Elba Island has a key role in the reconstructions of the stratigraphic, tectonic, metamorphic and magmatic evolution of the Northern Tyrrhenian Sea and of the inner part of the Northern Apennines chain. The Porto Azzurro Unit, cropping out in the SE part of the Island, is the deepest tectonic unit of the central-eastern Elba structural pile of Tuscan, Ligurian and Ligurian-Piedmontese Nappes, which were intruded by Late Tortonian-Lower Pliocene granitoids and mainly acidic dikes. Moreover, in this part of the Island, the relationships between the uplift of the plutonic bodies and the final deformations of the tectonic stack are well exposed. To improve the geological knowledge of SE Elba, the authors carried out a 1:10.000 geological survey of the Calamita Promontory (mostly made up of the Porto Azzurro Unit) and performed petrographic and meso-/micro-structural studies on its rocks. The Porto Azzurro Unit consists of a Paleozoic, likely pre-Carboniferous basement (Mt. Calamita Fm.), which is unconformably overlain by the ?Triassic Verrucano metasiliciclastics (Barabarca Quartzites) and ?Upper Triassic-?Hettangian metacarbonates. In the Mt.Calamita Fm., five main lithofacies were recognized and mapped. In particular, garnet-bearing, albite micaschist (lithofacies a) geometrically underlie a phyllitic-quartzitic unit (lithofacies b); Porphyroids-like rocks (lithofacies e), metabasite bodies (lithofacies d) and graphite-rich siliciclastics (lithofacies c) are also present. The rocks of the lithofacies a are similar to those of the ?pre-Paleozoic-?Paleozoic Micaschist Complex of the Larderello Geothermal Field, whereas the other lithofacies can be probably correletable with the ?Ordovician formations of the Tuscan Metamorphic Units. The complex deformation-metamorphic evolution of the Porto Azzurro Unit consists of the following events: a) a Variscan tectono-metamorphic event (Dx), recognized in the Mt.Calamita Fm., which is defined by pre- Alpine schistosity and mineralogic relics (garnet); b) two Alpine tectono-metamorphic folding events (D1 and D2) in the Greenschists facies, which deformed also the Mesozoic covers; c) a following folding event (D3) which probably occurred during or immediately after the strong thermometamorphic imprint (including the magnetite-rich skarn bodies), due to the Neogene magmatic intrusions; d) Subsequently, the uplift of the magmatic bodies caused low-angle detachments within the Porto Azzurro Unit (between the Mt.Calamita Fm. and the Mesozoic cover) and between the latter and the overlying tectonic Units (e.g. Zuccale Fault between the Porto Azzurro Unit and the Cretaceous Flysch). A final weak antiformal folding (D4) of the whole promontory took place before the development of NW-SE and N-S trending high –angle normal fault systems, locally sealed by hydrothermal, sometimes Fe-rich mineralizations. The lithostratigraphic, tectonic, metamorphic and magmatic evolution of the Porto Azzurro Unit is similar to that defined for the Larderello geothermal region. Thus, the Mt.Calamita area can be considered as a little older, but similar geological model for all the future interpretations of the deep structure of southern Tuscany crossed by the Crop 18 profile.

A Word to the Wise: Skarn

A Word to the Wise: Skarn

On some ore and skarn minerals of Langkawi

This paper describes the sulphide and skarn mineral occurrences in Langkawi, formed with relation to the Triassic granite intrusions. The minerals are distributed along the granite-limestone contacts and are well developed in the southeastern part of the island, especially in Bukit Panchor and Teluk Apau for the sulphides and Bukit Panchor and Pulau Bumbon Besar for the skarns. The sulphides, of copper-bismuth type, consist of chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, bismuth and bismuth sulphosalt of emplectite and joseite, while the skarn consists of tremolite-actinolite, diopside, grossularite-andradite garnet, vesuvianite, and occasionally accompanied by malayaite and scheelite. Abstrak: Kertas ini memerihal kewujudan mineral-mineral sulfida dan skarn di Langkawi, terhasil daripada rejahan granit berusia Trias. Mineral-mineral tersebut tertabur sepanjang kawasan sentuhan antara granit-batu kapur dan jelas terbentuk di bahagian tenggara Langkawi, terutamanya di Bukit Panchor dan Teluk Apau bagi mineral sulfida, dan Bukit Panchor serta Pulau Bumbon Besar bagi mineral skarn. Mineral sulfida adalah jenis kuprum-bismut, terdiri daripada kalkopirit, pirit, galena, sfalerit, pirotit, arsenopirit, bismut dan sulfosalt bismut iaitu emplektit dan joseit, manakala mineral-mineral skarn pula terdiri daripada tremolit-aktinolit, diopsid, garnet grosularit-andradit, vesuvianit, dan kadang­ kala malayait serta syilit.

GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN ELBA ISLAND, ITALY

GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN ELBA ISLAND, ITALY

Granitoid rocks and associated coper skarn, Whycocomagh Mountain, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia

Mineralized (Fe-Cu-W-Mo) skarn in the Whycocomagh Mountain area is associated with a small pluton of Devonian (402±20 Ma) age, which intruded predominantly metasedimentary rocks of the Hadrynian George River Group. The pluton consists largely of granite porphyry with a marginal granodiorite to diorite zone, and minor porphyritlc granodiorite to monzodiorite dykes and pegmatite. The suite is calc-alkalic with I-type characteristics. Although weakly mineralized, the Whycocomagh Mountain pluton has features typical of plutons associated with porphyry-type Cu-Mo deposits. Calc-silicate rocks derived from marbles of the George River Group are the chief hosts for magnetlte ± chalcopyrlte ± scheelite ± molybdenite ± pyrite which occur in veinlets along fractures and as disseminated grains In adjacent alteration envelopes. Characteristics of the pluton and the skarn minerals suggest that the deposit is a copper skarn.
 
 RÉSUMÉ
 Un skarn minéralise (Fe-Cu-W-Mo), situe dans la région de la montagne Whycocomagh, est associé à une petite intrusion ignée d'âge Dévonien (402±20 m.a.) qui pénétre des roches, principalement des métasédiments, du groupe George River (Hadrynien). Le pluton consiste surtout en un granite porphyrique accompagne d'une zone marginale (granodiorite à diorite), de dykes mineurs (granodiorite à monzodiorite porphyrique) et de pegmatite. L'ensemble est calco-alcalln et de "type 1". Blen que faiblement minéralise, le pluton Whycocomagh Mountain possède lea caractérlstiques typiques des plutons associés aux dépôts porphyrlques de type Cu-Mo. Les calco-sflicates dérives des marbres du groupe George River sont les notes principaux du cortege for magnétite ± chalcopyrlte ± scheelite ± molybdenite ± pyrite que L’on retrouve dans des veinules le long des fractures et disséminés dans les enveloppes d'alteratlon volsines. Les caractérlstiques du pluton ainsi que la minéralogle du skarn font croire qu'il s'agit d'un dépôt de skarn cuprifère.
 
 (Tradult par le Journal)

COMPLEX MODEL OF COPPER METALLOGENY IN MIDDLE-LOWER YANGTZE VALLEY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR ORE EXPLORATION

The middle-lower Yangtze Valley is a major metallogenic province of copper deposits in China. The major types of copper deposits in this area are: the sedimentary-reformational type, skarn type, porphyry type and volcanic type ore deposits. The complex model of copper metallogeny of the area is a dialectical synthesis in space, time and composition of several types of ore deposits. It is convenient for us in exploring and evaluating one type of ore deposit to consider the possibility of the presence of other types at the same time, and when one kind of ore is discovered, one must consider to search for another. Thus, the new approach to exploration may be developed and the potential of the orefield be expanded.

Mineralogy and origin of the skarn from Cala (Huelva, Spain)

Mineralogy and origin of the skarn from Cala (Huelva, Spain)

Mineralogy and Petrology of a Tactite near Helena, Montana

Mineralogy and Petrology of a Tactite near Helena, Montana

On the relative age of the skarn iron ores and the Haparanda granite series in the County of Norrbotten, Northern Sweden

(1967). On the relative age of the skarn iron ores and the Haparanda granite series in the County of Norrbotten, Northern Sweden. Geologiska Foreningen i Stockholm Forhandlingar: Vol. 89, No. 1, pp. 116-118.