Opening Size Research Articles

Stable and efficient microbubble-enhanced cold plasma activation for treatment of flowing water

Cold plasma technology has received immense attention in several fields including wastewater treatment, disinfection, food processing and storage, and agriculture due to its ability to produce reactive species at low energy input. However, the scalability of generation of plasma activated water (PAW) still remains a challenge. A microbubble-enhanced cold plasma activation (MB-CPA) technology leverages small bubbles for effectively interfacing plasma discharge in a gas phase and a flow of liquid media. In this study, we develop a stable and efficient approach for the continuous production of PAW by maximizing the transfer of active species generated during plasma discharge to water flow. Novel Venturi-type microbubble generators were designed for the production of PAW by maximizing the rapid transfer of active species generated during plasma discharge in air. Key geometrical features of the tubes including the position and the opening size of the air inlet were tuned, aiming to transfer active species in a wide range of liquid flow conditions. The performance of our flow systems was evaluated by using pure water, buffered saline, and real river water containing micro-pollutants. We found that MB-CPA can effectively eliminate chemical compounds such as dye and antibiotic residues, as well as biological pathogens like Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In a cell viability assay, the technology exhibited cytotoxic effects against cancerous cells, specifically HeLa and MCF-07 cell lines. This multi-functionality underscores the versatility of MB-CPA, positioning it as a multifaceted solution for both water and wastewater treatment. Our work shows that the designed MB-CPA system represents a promising and sustainable technological advancement, offering a green alternative for the widespread activation of water in various applications.

Manipulation of Bowl-Shaped Nanoparticles Self-Assembled from a Bipyridine Pendant Containing Homopolymer.

The morphological control and transformation of soft nanomaterials are critical for their physical and chemical properties, which can be achieved by dynamically regulating the hydrophilicity of amphiphilic polymers during self-assembly. Herein, an amphiphilic homopolymer poly(N-(2,2'-bipyridine)-4-acrylamide) (PBPyAA) with bipyridine pendants is synthesized, and the effect of various parameters including initial concentration, temperature, pH, and metal ion coordination on the self-assembly behavior and morphology of the assemblies is investigated. Upon changing the initial concentration of PBPyAA, bowl-shaped nanoparticles (BNPs) with precisely controlled diameter, opening size, and thickness are obtained. With the decrease of pH of the solution, the negatively charged surface of BNPs transforms to a positively charged state. Furthermore, the addition of divalent metal ions (Co2+, Mn2+, and Zn2+) induces the transformation of BNPs to vesicles and giant vesicles. The effect of the above factors on the morphology of the assemblies is essential to change the hydrophilicity of PBPyAA dynamically, leading to variation of the local viscosity during self-assembly. Overall, manipulation of the structural parameters of BNPs and transformation of BNPs to vesicles are achieved, providing fresh insights for the precise control of the morphologies of soft nanomaterials.

Effectiveness of the STEM based TPACK Learning Model on Students 21 Century Skills in Indonesia

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of STEM-based TPACK learning models on students' 21st century skills in Indonesia. This research is a meta-analysis research by analysing 13 national and international journals published in 2021-2024. The inclusion criteria in this study are that the research comes from SINTA and Scopus indexed journals, the research must be experimental or quasi-experimental methods, research related to the STEM-based TPACK learning model, the dependent variable is related to 21st century thinking skills consisting of critical thinking and problem solving, creative, collaborative and communicative, the research has complete data to calculate the effect size value, and the research must be open access and sample size > 28 students. Data search through google scholar, ERIC, Taylor of francis and Mendeley. The data filtering process with the PRISMA method. Data analysis is quantitative analysis by calculating the effect size value with the help of the SPSS application. The results concluded that the STEM-based TPACK learning model had a positive effect on students' 21st century thinking skills in Indonesia with an average effect size value (ES = 1.09) in the high effect size category. The findings provide information for teachers that the implementation of STEM-based TPACK learning is effective in developing students' 21st century thinking skills

Evaluation of the post-coital anti-fertility activity of Michelia champaca linn. aerial extract in female Wistar rat

Background: The plant M. champaca L., commonly known as Champa, has traditionally been utilized for its medicinal properties, particularly in women's health, for managing sterility and birth control. Previous literature primarily focuses on the anti-fertility activity of leaf extracts, while limited research has explored the potential of other aerial parts, such as the bark and flowers. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the female anti-fertility actions of various aerial parts (including leaves, branches, bark, and flowers) of the M. champaca plant, expanding our understanding beyond the previously studied leaf extracts. Material and Method: The petroleum ether (PEAEMC), ethyl alcohol (EAEMC), and chloroform water (AAEMC) extracts of aerial parts of M. champaca at doses of 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg were administered to female Wistar rats by using an experimental model, i.e., anti-implantation and estrogenic/Anti-estrogenic activity. Result: All three extracts showed significant anti-implantation activity (p<0.01). Among all, only EAEMC Showed activity corresponding to the standard. EAEME caused an increase in the vaginal opening size and increased height and width of the endometrium in immature ovariectomized female rats; it showed an estrogen-like action when given alone, however when given along with Ethinylestradiol, it showed anti-estrogenic action. Conclusion: It was observed that EAEMC (the Ethyl alcohol extract of M. champaca) showed dose dependent anti-fertility activity. The chemical constituents like steroids, alkaloids, and flavonoids identified from the photochemical screening may be responsible for the anti-fertility activity of the aerial parts of M. champaca L.

Standardization of Formulation and Application Approaches for Field Implementation of EPNs

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) live parasitically inside the infected insect host, and so they are termed as endoparasitic. They infect different types of insect living in the soil like the larval forms of moths, butterflies and beetles as well as adult forms of beetles, grasshoppers and crickets. The present experiment was conducted under both laboratory and field conditions at CCS Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar. Two most virulent strains of EPNs, Metarhabditis amsactae strain HAR-St-II and HAR-Ht-III were taken and their formulations were standardized using six different media i.e. cadaver based formulation, water, alginate gel, foam chips, clay chips and water dispersible granules. Among these formulations, cadaver based formulation was found to be best. Maximum numbers of active IJs after 90 days were obtained from this formulation were 3370 and 2728 /Petri plate in strain HAR-St-II and HAR- Ht-III of M. amsactae, respectively. Further this, experiment was conducted at field level for EPNs suspension was standardized using different size of nozzle opening i.e. 25 µm, 50 µm, 75 µm and 100 µm on knapsack sprayer. Spodoptera litura was selected as a test insect in okra crop for foliar application of EPNs and results revealed that 100 µm nozzle opening size gave maximum larval mortality of S. litura. Per cent mortality of S. litura was increased with increase in size of nozzle and period of observation

Nonlinear elasticity and short-range mechanical coupling govern the rate and symmetry of mouth opening in Hydra.

Hydra has a tubular bilayered epithelial body column with a dome-shaped head on one end and a foot on the other. Hydra lacks a permanent mouth: its head epithelium is sealed. Upon neuronal activation, a mouth opens at the apex of the head which can exceed the body column diameter in seconds, allowing Hydra to ingest prey larger than itself. While the kinematics of mouth opening are well characterized, the underlying mechanism is unknown. We show that Hydra mouth opening is generated by independent local contractions that require tissue-level coordination. We model the head epithelium as an active viscoelastic nonlinear spring network. The model reproduces the size, timescale and symmetry of mouth opening. It shows that radial contractions, travelling inwards from the outer boundary of the head, pull the mouth open. Nonlinear elasticity makes mouth opening larger and faster, contrary to expectations. The model correctly predicts changes in mouth shape in response to external forces. By generating innervated : nerve-free chimera in experiments and simulations, we show that nearest-neighbour mechanical signalling suffices to coordinate mouth opening. Hydra mouth opening shows that in the absence of long-range chemical or neuronal signals, short-range mechanical coupling is sufficient to produce long-range order in tissue deformations.

Thermal Performance of Vernacular Stilt House in Palu City

The stilt house is one of vernacular architecture features in Indonesia. Several stilt vernacular houses persist until 70 to 100 years old in Palu City. Stilt house forms were proved to be adaptive to tropical climates. This research provides evidence of a thermally comfortable interior created by the vernacular stilt house of Palu City. The research was carried out in two stages: field measurement and thermal comfort value analysis, based on SNI 03-6572-2001 standards. Purposive sampling was used to determine the research sample for vernacular stilt houses. The selected stilt house is located on Anoa street No 57, North Tatura Ward, Palu City. Field measurement was performed to record the indoor and outdoor thermal condition of the sample house employing Hobo Onset U12-012 RH-Light data logger and Hobo H-22 microclimate station. The results show that the outdoor air temperature peak is 36.8°C with 45% humidity. Meanwhile, the indoor peak temperature on the 1st floor reached 32°C with 51% humidity. On the 2nd floor, there are five rooms with peak temperatures ranging from 29.5°C to 34.6°C with 53% to 64% humidity, indicating that each room has a different temperature performance. This condition is due to several parameters, such as ceiling height, roof shape, opening size, room layout, and room orientation. The result also showed that the indoor air temperature tends to be lower than the outdoor air temperature. Hence, it is indicated that the design strategies of the sample building are adaptive to the tropical warm and humid conditions of Palu.

GFRP continuous RC beams having web openings and externally strengthened with CFRP composites

With the enormous development of modern buildings, it is highly required to accommodate web openings in continuous reinforced concrete (RC) beams for passing utility service equipment. A wide range of studies had been conducted with regard to this subject. wtCurrent study examined numerically the major effect of the large rectangular web openings in (GFRP) reinforced concrete continuous beams under concentrated loads. Moreover, it investigated the effects of different CFRP strengthening schemes that would retrieve the ultimate capacity of the solid beam. Based on that, the main parameters that had been utilized here are the opening size, opening location and the strengthening scheme. Results showed that openings reduced the ultimate load capacity of the beams and increased the overall deflections. Furthermore, using CFRP sheets to strengthen continuous RC beams including opening retrieved (70%) of the ultimate capacity of continuous RC solid beams especially beams with openings near the external support or midspan. Likewise, using CFRP composites retrieved (48%) of the ultimate capacity of continuous RC solid beams with openings near the interior support. Furthermore, the optimum location for constructing web openings was near the external supports, which was subjected to the lowest values of shear forces and sagging moments and leaded to accommodate greater ultimate loads (85.18 kN) than other beams of other openings location.

Improvement in Vase Life of Gladiolus Cut Flowers Using Different Holding Solutions of Sodium Nitroprusside and of Salicylic Acid

Gladiolus (Gladiolus hybridus Hort.) is one of the most important commercial ornamentals cut flower used in the floriculture industry. Among cut flowers, gladiolus is popular for its glamour, perfection and attractive colorful spikes. The longevity of cut flowers is one of the main challenges of florists to gain consumers attention towards its marketing. In present investigation, we tried two chemicals viz. Sodium nitroprusside (SNP, a NO donor) and Salicylic Acid (SA, a signaling molecule) in different concentration combinations and observed their effect on gladiolus flowers vase life of two varieties viz. Pusa Shanti and Pusa Chandni. Spikes treated with T7 (SA 150 mg/L), in Pusa Shanti and T2 (SNP 100 mg/L), in Pusa Chandni was observed effective treatments than others and showed better performance of vase life, days after basal florets open, maximum size of florets, solution uptake, florets opening and maximum time taken for the vase deterioration and it helped to improve the postharvest quality of gladiolus spikes by influencing various morphological and physiological attributes of gladiolus vase. Through the present study we are able to know the role of Sodium nitroprusside and Salicylic acid to enhance the vase life of cut flower of Gladiolus.

The Effect of Opening Size and Expansion Ratio on the Flexural Behavior of Hot Rolled Wide Flange Steel Beams with Expanded Web

In some design cases, such as in castellated beams, cellular beams, or steel beams with expanded web, it is advantageous to strengthen and enhance the performance of steel beams by increasing the web depth. However, expanding the web of a steel beam is a unique engineering strategy. This modification not only enhances its ability to bear heavy loads but also reduces any bending or flexing while enabling longer distances between supports. The expanded steel beams can be achieved by making a horizontal cutting in the steel beam web and then adding an increment plate (with the same web thickness), called spacer plate, between the two halves of the web sections, thus improving stiffness and strength. To evaluate the behavior of such beams, nine specimens of HEA steel beams with expanded web ratios of 150%, 200%, and 250%, and one specimen as a reference beam, were fabricated. The specimens were evaluated under two-point load over a clear span length of 280 cm. From the experimental work it was found that for steel beams with expanded web that have 18 openings with 80 mm, the beams with an expansion ratio of 150% had the best performance according to load-deflection behavior with a reduction in load capacity by only 11%. Additionally, the beams with expansion ratios of 200% and 250% had no economic viability according to the analysis of load-deflection behavior with a reduction in load capacity by 49% and 62%, compared with the solid expanded steel beam with the same expansion ratio. For the second type of steel beam with expanding web with 9 openings of 160 mm width, the beams with expansion ratios of 200% and 250% were observed to perform better than the first type with a reduction in load capacity by 28% and 50%. Using larger opening width and a smaller opening number is considered the best option for beams with expansion web ratios of 200% and 250%, while on the contrary, using smaller opening width and higher numbers seems to be a better option for beams with 150% expansion web ratio. Expanding the depth of a steel beam provides design flexibility, reduces deflections, and allows for longer spans. These benefits enhance material efficiency and open up new architectural possibilities.

NLFEA of the Behavior of Polypropylene-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Slabs with Square Opening

The bending behavior of one-war reinforced concrete (RC) slabs with polypropylene fibers (PF) was examined in this study under the effect of different opening ratios using the nonlinear finite element analysis (NLFEA) method. The investigated parameters include the effect of different square opening ratios between 0 and 24% and PF volume percentages between 0 and 1% with 0.1% increments. The objectives of this study were fulfilled using 88 NLFEA models with different combinations of the studied parameters, including 11 control slabs without openings. The slab’s behavior was studied focusing on different structural performance characteristics, such as ductility, using energy-based and deflection-based approaches, stiffness (initial and yielding), cracking, and ultimate load strength. In addition, other structural performance parameters were considered, such as the crack opening, failure modes, and strain values, which were recorded for all specimens during the loading history. Moreover, the load-carrying capacity of the slabs was compared, looking at the NLFEA method’s results and the theoretical prediction results based on the sectional analysis method. However, it was observed that the inclusion of PFs of different percentages has a superior effect on the behavior of RC slabs with small openings (less than 2% opening ratio) compared to the acceptable improvements obtained for sabs with larger opening sizes. Consequently, PF could be utilized as a replacement for conventional steel rebars for RC slabs with small openings. In addition, increasing the PF percentage increases the resulting crack-opening value at failure due to the provided stabilization effect, in addition to increasing the system’s ability to sustain loads.

Enhancing the borosilicate glass micromachining by using mixed alkaline electrolytes in the ECDM process

ABSTRACT This article investigates the effects of mixing different alkaline electrolytes on the geometrical features created by the ECDM. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) were mixed in varying volumetric proportions. Effect of critical process parameters on the depth and width of the microchannels and the associated tool wear was investigated. Pure NaOH electrolyte has resulted in the highest depth compared to the pure KOH electrolyte. Process mechanism behind the role of mixed electrolytes on the opening sizes and depths of microchannels is explained. Higher material removal by the NaOH electrolyte was due to the larger number of sodium (Na+) ions in the electrolyte, resulting in more aggressive electrochemical discharge; however, it also resulted in severe tool wear. Mixed electrolytes with a KOH yielded lower width and low tool wear. Increasing the volumetric proportion of KOH in the mixed electrolyte gradually decreased the machining depth, width, and tool wear.

Experimental and theoretical investigations on out-of-plane buckling of circular aluminum arches with web openings under a central concentrated load

Perforated arches with cellular openings are widely used as roof beams in various buildings due to the functional and appearance requirements of architecture. Perforated arches under a central concentrated load may suffer from out-of-plane buckling when the load reaches to a critical value. This paper presents the analytical solution based on the energy method to predict the critical load of perforated arches under a central concentrated load. Experimental tests and finite element analyses are also carried out for perforated circular aluminum arch specimens to validate the present analytical solution. Good agreement between the analytical, experimental, and numerical results is demonstrated. The present results show that the size of web openings and the slenderness of the arch could affect the out-of-plane buckling behavior of perforated arches significantly. The arch with larger web perforations or larger slenderness ratio has the lower critical load of out-of-plane buckling.

Performance of tracked excavators equipped with grapple-saw stacking treetops in poplar plantations

ABSTRACT In recent years, the cost of manpower increased in Southern Europe. This has encouraged companies to improve the mechanization level of all activities. Purpose-built machines are very expensive, so in this transition phase, there is a tendency to purchase multipurpose machines to reduce depreciation costs. In this scenario, excavators play a fundamental role because they can be used in many activities by changing the working tools. In poplar plantations, excavators with grapple saws and tracks are usually used to move the residual biomass. This work aimed to analyze the performance of excavators with a grapple-saw during the stacking of residual biomass in poplar plantations. Six excavators that varied in power and mass were analyzed. The data analyzed showed that productivity is directly proportional to the machine’s power and mass (0.15 t h−1 kW−1 and 0.75 t h−1 t−1). Furthermore, productivity is linked to the opening size of the grapple (6.43 t h−1 m−1 of opening). In conclusion, on the basis of the results obtained, it is possible to confirm that the excavators can be valid machines also in forestry activities independently of their nominal power and gross mass.

Design and Simulation of End Effector for Young-Pear-Bagging Robot

In order to address the time-consuming and labor-intensive challenges as well as the suboptimal operational quality encountered in the conventional processes of fruit bagging within expansive orchards, an innovative end-of-bagging actuator is proposed, which can be installed on a fruit-production robot. Due to the excessive power sources required to complete the bagging operation, while also taking into account the quality and cost of the end effector, we have implemented a clutch transmission system to control individual motors, thereby achieving efficient bag-opening and collection actions. Through kinematic analysis of the bagging end effector, the optimal bag opening size is determined to be 40.3372 mm, with a deviation of 0.1428 mm from the design target and an error rate of 0.35%. This ensures the desired bag size for bagging juvenile fruits. Moreover, a dynamic simulation model comprising rigid drive components and a flexible clutch was developed. The simulation results demonstrate the system’s stable performance. However, it is evident that the gear speed falls below that of the flexible clutch, resulting in insufficient bag opening and bag gathering compared to the intended design target. The observed phenomenon is a result of the characteristics exhibited by the flexible clutch. Specifically, the demands for bagging and stretching can be accommodated by modifying the stiffness and geometric configuration of the flexible clutch, alongside the level of operational force. To conclude, the suggested end effector can successfully simulate the implementation of the manual bagging process. By taking into account the quality and cost of the end effector, a clutch drive system was utilized to regulate a single motor, resulting in efficient bag-opening and collection actions. This approach offers a more integrated and efficient solution compared to manual bagging and semi-automatic mechanically assisted bagging methods.

Application of Fuzzy Logic for Robotic Arm Joint Control of an Explosive Ordnance Disposal Unit

Precise luffing of payload in mobile cranes is a crucial part of material handling and safety in industrial operations. Explosive ordnance disposal uses a bomb disposal robot to safely disable explosive devices at a safe distance. This robot is a mobile jib crane type with a gripper as an end effector instead of the typical suspension cable with a hook. The common challenge of this crane type is the arm/jib movement sensitivity with respect to tip-over stability of the crane body. This is directly influenced by the payload and constrained by the degree of freedom. This paper presents a control strategy of the joint for luffing such that the back wheels remain in contact with the surface ground and avoid bucking at any given instance of weight change in the payload. Fuzzy logic was applied to control the motor torque and luffing angle of the arm in response to the load and gripper opening size to maintain the tip-over stability margin at the highest value possible. The response curves at different configurations of the two input signals were also analyzed based on the rules set to determine its precision with respect to the expected response curve.

Model studies for desilting basin for Teesta-VI H.E. project, Sikkim – a case study

Desilting basins play an important role in run-of-river hydro power projects on Himalayan Rivers. These rivers carry huge amount of sediment with them, due to steep slopes and fragile geology of the region. The suspended sediment enters through the power intake and ultimately the power house. This causes heavy damage to the turbines and other under water parts. Therefore, desilting basins are provided to eliminate suspended sediment from the water conductor system. The design of desilting basin is verified on a physical model for 90% removal of suspended sediment coarser than 0.2 or 0.3 mm and efficacy of flushing tunnel below in transporting the settled sediment. Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune has conducted physical model studies for desilting basin for various hydro power projects in India and neighbouring countries. One such study, Hydraulic model studies for desilting basin for 500 MW Teesta-VI Hydro Electric Project, Sikkim is presented in this paper. Various design parameters such as length of desilting basin, length and bed slope of inlet transition, outlet transition, size of silt flushing tunnel, size and spacing of openings connecting main basin with silt flushing tunnel etc. were tested during the model studies. The results in terms of settling efficiency for 0.3 mm size particles were obtained.

Effects of floral display size, local open raceme density, patch size, and distance between patches on pollinator behaviour in Salvia nipponica

Flowers cluster at various spatial scales, so pollinators use information from multiple scales when foraging in natural plant populations. Little is known about the effects of interactions between scales or their relative strength. We examined bumblebee foraging behaviour in a natural population of Salvia nipponica in 10 and 7 patches in 2019 and 2020, respectively. We recorded within-patch factors (display size of racemes and local open raceme densities) and patch-level factors (patch size and distance from the nearest patch) and analysed their relationships with pollinator behaviour. The numbers of visits per raceme and flower were mainly affected by the interaction of patch size and raceme density; they were higher in locations with lower raceme density in larger patches. The ratio of flowers visited to all open flowers in a raceme during a raceme visit, which relates to a bumblebee’s choice to leave a raceme, was mainly affected by the interaction of display size and local open raceme density; in 2019 it was higher in racemes with smaller display sizes, while in 2020 the strength and direction of the relationship depended on the open raceme density. These results suggest that pollinators relied on the sizes of flower clusters at different spatial scales when visiting and leaving racemes and adjusted their responses to the sizes of flower clusters depending on the distances between clusters. Therefore, it is important to evaluate factors at various spatial scales and their interactions to fully understand pollinator behaviour in natural plant populations.

Frequency-multiplexed multifunctional coding metasurface based on transmission and reflection modes

In this work, a frequency-multiplexed multifunctional coding metasurface is proposed, which can realize focusing lens at the lower frequency and multiple scattering beams at the higher frequency. The two functions can be manipulated independently. The proposed metasurface is composed of the top metal patch with a circular ring, two fan rings and two rectangle patches (CFRP), the bottom metal patch with C-shaped and rectangular metal slots (CRS) and a dielectric substrate. By changing the opening direction and size of CRS and the tilt direction and fan ring size of CFRP, the amplitude and phase of transmission and reflection can be modulated, respectively. The transmission mode works at 7 GHz, which can form focal points in different focal planes. The reflection mode works at 17.5 GHz, which can form multiple scattered beams in different directions in the far field. To further verify its practical feasibility, the proposed metasurface is fabricated and measured, the experimental results are in good agreement with the numerical simulation results. The proposed metasurface provides new possibilities to develop multifunctional devices.

Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Quality of Household Drinking Water from Source to Point of Use in Akewu Community in Ibadan, Oyo State, Southwest, Nigeria

Poor household water storage is one of the major factors contributing to contamination of drinking water in Nigeria. Studies have shown that sizes of containers opening can affect water quality, but little has been documented on comparative effect of storage containers with different opening sizes in improving drinking water quality in Ibadan. This study was designed to assess the effect of different storage containers on household drinking water quality in selected communities in Ibadan. A quasi-experimental design was adopted. Four communities in Ibadan North Local Government namely; Akewu using protected springs as household drinking water sources were purposively selected. Forty-four households (11 from each community) were selected and randomly assigned to four treatment groups; those with Covered Buckets with Taps (CBT), Covered Buckets without Tap (CB), Covered Kegs with Taps (CKT) and Covered Kegs without Tap (CK). Prior to introducing the treatment containers, water samples were collected from their Regular Storage Containers (RSC) and springs for physicochemical and bacteriological analysis using standard methods. Participants were thereafter encouraged to store drinking water in the treatment containers provided for them. Water samples were later collected from CBT, CB, CKT and CK containers twice daily for 3 alternate days over two weeks for bacteriological analysis. In addition, oldest female of selected households were interviewed using a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire to elicit information on their socio-demographic characteristics, storage container cleaning and handwashing practices. Results of physicochemical and bacteriological findings were compared with Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) guidelines. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, t- test and ANOVA at p=0.05. At baseline, mean pH values of water samples from the springs and RSC were 6.4±0.6 and 7.1±0.7 respectively compared with 6.5-8.5 limits recommended by SON. Mean chloride concentration of springs (14.3±7.4mg/l) and RSC (19.3±10.0 mg/l) samples were below 250mg/l limit recommended by SON. Mean Total Coliform Count (TCC) of the springs in the four communities was 18.0±4.0 and mean TCC of RSC was 12.7±4.9 which exceeded the SON standard of 10MPN/100ml. Five percent of water samples from RSC had mean E.coli count of 100/100ml compared with SON guidelines of 0/100ml. The mean TCC after introducing CB, CBT, CK and CKT in all the communities were 10.0±4.0, 8.5±4.2, 6.9±2.8 and 7.3±3.7 respectively (p<0.05). No E.coli was found in the samples collected from the treatment storage containers. The percentage difference of coliform count in water from springs and RSC was 29.4% while percentage difference from RSC and CB, CBT, CK and CKT were 21.5%, 33.2%, 45.5% and 42.5% respectively. Mean age of the 44 respondents interviewed was 37.9±10.7years. Seventy-three percent washed their hands with only water after defecation and 95.0% stored water for cooking and drinking in the same container. Sixty-eight percent cleaned their containers weekly while 32.0% cleaned twice weekly.