Single Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Research Articles

Deep learning-based fault diagnosis of high-power PEMFCs with ammonia-based hydrogen sources

The fault diagnosis of high-power proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) with ammonia-based hydrogen sources (AHSs) is studied by an ensemble machine learning methods as considering various operating conditions. Under various operating conditions, the results show that when the single-fault state and the multiple-faults state, appear in a single high-power PEMFC system, the overall diagnostic accuracy of 98.89% is realized by the optimized hidden Markov model (HMM) coupling with the convolutional neural network (CNN) and the t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE). When using the t-SNE-CNN-HMM fault diagnosis model, the overall diagnostic accuracy is 100% in a single AHS system. Similarly, the overall diagnostic accuracy is 98.58% for the single-fault and the multiple-faults states in the AHSs-PEMFCs coupled system. Based on these single-fault and multiple-faults states, the overall diagnostic accuracy of t-SNE-CNN-HMM model is larger in comparison with these of other diagnosis models, of which these diagnosis models are composed of the support vector machine (SVM), backpropagation neural network (BPNN) and only-CNN models. The t-SNE-CNN-HMM method integrates the generalization and identification ability of CNN and HMM, leading to provide an efficient and accurate fault diagnosis for the AHSs-PEMFCs coupled system.

Parametric Study of a Large Active Area PEM Fuel Cell using a MatLab-Simulink Model

A Matlab-Simulink based mathematical model and simulation method is developed by applying appropriate physics and electro-chemistry that adequately describes a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system. The mathematical model is then simulated for a single low temperature PEMFC with a large, 350cm2, active area. The single cell’s performance was evaluated using different operating conditions and varying values of various crucial system parameters. The Matlab-Simulink model presented in this investigation is used to study various parameters’ effect such as the cell temperature from 50℃ to 90℃, inlet pressure, relative humidity (RH) from 70% to 90%, and the reactant stoichiometry ratio, on the cell performance. Comparison of polarization and power density curves were conducted between the model simulation and experimental data at 60℃ and at 65℃. Except for the higher current densities range (≥1.6 A/cm2), the simulation results match with the experimental results very well. The parametric study was used to determine the optimum value of various parameters. The fuel cell performance with the optimized parameter values show a good improvement using the developed MatLab-Simulink model.

Numerical Study on Effect of Flow Field Configuration on Air-Breathing Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Stacks

Air-breathing proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) show enormous potential in small and portable applications because of their brief construction time without the need for gas supply, humidification and cooling devices. In the current work, a 3D multiphase model of single air-breathing PEMFCs is developed by considering the contact resistance between the gas diffusion layer and bipolar plate and the anisotropic thermal conduction and electric conductive in the through-plane and in-plane directions. The 3D model presents good grid independence and agreement with the experimental polarization curve. The single PEMFC with the best open area ratio of 55% achieves the maximum peak power density of 179.3 mW cm−2. For the fuel cell stack with 10 single fuel cells, the application of the anode window flow field is beneficial to improve the stack peak power density compared to the anode serpentine flow field. The developed model is capable of providing assistance in designing high-performance air-breathing PEMFC stacks.

Synthesis of low cost cathode electrocatalyst Pt‐Ni/CAB using DMSO as a solvent for low temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell application

AbstractIn the present study, low cost platinum based bimetallic electrocatalyst Pt‐Ni/CAB with varying Pt to Ni atomic ratios 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3 were successfully synthesized for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) of the developed proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). The solvothermal process was adopted for the synthesis of Pt‐Ni(3:1)/CAB, Pt‐Ni(1:1)/CAB, and Pt‐Ni(1:3)/CAB using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as solvent at a temperature of 190°C which is very close to the boiling point. The Pt‐Ni/CAB exhibited the highest activity for the ORR in half‐cell and single cell PEMFC performance. The electrocatalysts Pt‐Ni(1:3)/CAB appeared with smallest crystalline FCC structures having crystallite size of 8.33 nm. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis also show that the Pt‐Ni(1:3)/CAB has smallest particle size of 1.67 ± 0.45 nm. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) analysis shows Pt‐Ni(1:3)/CAB electrocatalyst offers less activation loss at ORR peak at a potential of 0.16 V as compared to Pt‐Ni(3:1)/CAB (ORR peak – 0.12) and Pt‐Ni(1:1)/CAB (ORR peak – 0.11). The synthesized Pt‐Ni(1:3)/CAB produced a maximum power density of 18.86 mW/cm2 at a maximum current density of 44.8 mA/cm2 with an open‐circuit voltage of 0.914 V at a room temperature of 33°C. The power density improved around 1.34 times when the cell temperature was raised from 33 to 70°C. The Pt‐Ni(1:3)/CAB cathode electrocatalyst could be used as economical to substitute costly commercial pure platinum based electrocatalyst.

Integration of proton exchange membrane fuel cell with air gap membrane distillation for sustainable electricity and freshwater cogeneration: Performance, influential mechanism, multi-objective optimization and future perspective

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) converts vast majority of hydrogen energy into waste heat, resulting in energy wasting, membrane drying and even lifetime shortening. Herein, air gap membrane distillation is proposed to immediately remove and harness the waste heat from PEMFC for additional freshwater production. By quantifying the irreversible thermodynamic and electrochemical losses, mathematical formulas for the water production, power generation and overall efficiency are derived to evaluate the system performance. After a rigorous model validation, the performance feature, feasibility and competitiveness of the proposed system are examined. The integration system achieves a peak power density 23.69 % higher than that of a single PEMFC at 353 K, with a corresponding increase in exergy efficiency by 3.61 %. In addition, the influential mechanisms of the PEMFC operating conditions, air gap thickness, coolant temperature, and properties of the proton exchange membrane and hydrophobic porous membrane are investigated to discern potential avenues for further performance improvement. The gradient-based local sensitivity analyses further determine the optimal parameter regulation strategies for different output targets. The economic study indicates that the levelized costs of water and electricity over the total lifecycle are 21.53 $ m−3 and 0.061 $ kWh−1, respectively. The multi-objective optimization, integrating genetic algorithm and the technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution, maximizes the exergy efficiency and output power density while minimizing the initial investment cost per unit area, with values of 42.84 %, 0.975 W cm−2, and 27.33 $ cm−2, respectively.

Water saturation distribution in a PEMFC at the cathode side using OpenFOAM

Water management is a critical issue for achieving the optimum performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) since water flooding limits the flow of reactants to catalyst zones and produces electrode regions with higher electric resistance. We used a 3D non-isothermal multiphase model of a single PEMFC to investigate the liquid water saturation distribution at the cathode side. We used an open-source toolbox to solve finite volume method calculations and implement an effective diffusion model based on fiber layers. A parametric study of the condensation rate and saturation at 0.4, 0.2, and 0.1 V illustrates the distribution of liquid water saturation and the flooding zones across the electrode components. The comparison shows that the flooding zones are located at the land ribs. Also, increased water saturation and higher oxygen consumption produce a reactant restriction in the porous media and impact the global performance of the fuel cell.

Investigating the Suitability of Printed Circuit Components for Fuel Cells

Flexible electrochemical energy sources using non-traditional cell materials and topologies have attracted growing attention because they offer unique design opportunities that are still being explored. They also offer potential advantages such as conformability, high power density, high specific power, and low cost through the adoption of electronics manufacturing techniques. This study examines the feasibility of using flexible printed circuits boards (PCBs) as the anode and cathode current collectors (CCs) of single cell Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFCs). In this work, we determine the best anode and cathode interfaces at which to embed flexible CCs to obtain the highest power, as illustrated in Figure 1. The flexible anode and cathode CCs are embedded A) inside the PEM|Catalyst Layer (CL) interface, B) between the CL|Micro Porous Layer (MPL) interface and C) between the Gas Diffusion Layer (GDL)| Flow field (FF) interface. The performance of the single cell PEMFC with the embedded flexible anode and cathode CCs at the different interfaces described in Figure 1 is investigated by using I-V polarization curves, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and thermal imaging. The performance of the cells tested with the embedded flexible CCs is compared to the performance of a standard cell. This study also investigates the effect of varying the anode and cathode CC geometry (square shape vs. circular) and opening ratio (20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60%) on the cell performance. Figure 1

Elucidation of the Interplay between the Features of the Precursor and the Physicochemical Properties of “Core-Shell” Hierarchical Carbon Nitride Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction

The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is a major bottleneck in the operation of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) since it introduces large overpotentials (no less than 250-300 mV), which degrade significantly the energy conversion efficiency of the device. In addition, the electrocatalysts (ECs) yielding the lowest ORR overpotentials in the acidic environment found at the PEMFC cathode are based on Pt, a very scarce critical raw material (CRM). Pt raises concerns as it might trigger serious supply bottlenecks in the event of a practical widespread implementation of PEMFCs in the framework of today’s energy transition. Hence, the development of high-performing and durable ECs for the ORR is a major stepping stone towards the large-scale rollout of PEMFCs.In our research group a new breakthrough approach has been devised for the synthesis of ORR ECs, that is completely different form the preparation routes that are commonly adopted in the state of the art [1, 2]. Briefly, the approach consists in the pyrolysis and subsequent treatment of a precursor obtained by coupling suitable carbon species/sacrificial supports with a zeolitic inorganic-organic polymer electrolyte (Z-IOPE). The latter comprises anionic complexes including the Pt “catalyst” and other “co-catalysts”, which are bridged by organic binders [1,2].On one hand, the proposed approach has already shown its potential to yield ECs exhibiting a performance and durability improved with respect to Pt/C benchmark ECs. On the other hand, the proposed approach is extremely flexible, especially with respect to the synthesis of the initial EC precursor. In principle, it is possible to modulate a number of crucial features of such EC precursor, with a particular reference to: (i) the chemical composition (e.g., in terms of Pt, other “co-catalysts” and N; the latter plays a crucial role to stabilize the active sites into “coordination nests” on the EC surface, raising durability); and (ii) the morphology, that can be “templated” on suitable species (e.g., carbon species, sacrificial supports). The very flexibility of the proposed synthetic process needs to be leveraged appropriately to maximize the performance of the final ORR ECs, at the same time minimizing the efforts wasted on approaches with a low development potential.Herein it is elucidated how the modulation in the parameters involved in the synthesis of the EC precursor (e.g., the binder and the approaches to couple the Z-IOPE with the support) impact the physicochemical and electrochemical properties of the final ECs, with a particular reference to the chemical composition, morphology and distribution of the ORR active sites. An extensive characterization of the final ECs is carried out. Inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and microanalysis are adopted to determine the bulk chemical composition. Near-ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (NAP-XPS) is used to elucidate the surface chemical composition and the chemical states of the surface elements. Ultra-high resolution scanning electron microscopy (UHR-SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) allow for the elucidation of EC morphology. The porosimetric features are probed by automatic gas adsorption instrumentations. Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) is crucial to resolve the crystal structure. Cyclic voltammetry with the rotating ring-disk electrode method (CV-TF-RRDE) is used to clarify the “ex-situ” electrochemical performance and ORR reaction mechanism. Finally, the most promising ECs are used in the fabrication of single PEMFCs, that are tested as a function of the operating conditions.It is revealed that, in comparison with the Pt/C benchamark, some ECs are characterized by a much higher intrinsic kinetic performance due to the electronic and bifunctional effects bestowed by the carbon nitride support and the «co-catalysts». Finally, the binder has a marked effect on the stoichiometry, size, and distribution of the PtMx aggregates bearing the active sites.

Electrospun fabrication and experimental characterization of highly porous microporous layers for PEM fuel cells

To meet the demands for high power density, enhancing the water discharge capacity of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) is imperative. The microporous layer (MPL), placed between a catalyst layer and gas diffusion layer, plays a crucial role in water management for PEMFCs. In this study, we fabricated electrospun MPLs of different pore sizes and characterized their morphology and pore structures. The mercury intrusion test showed that the mean pore sizes of electrospun MPLs are about 1.2–2.3 μm, much larger than commercial MPL's (about 70 nm). The electrospun MPLs were assembled in single PEMFCs to test their performance and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). The results demonstrate that the electrospun MPLs with a pore size exceeding 1.9 μm significantly enhance water discharge and oxygen transport at the cathode relative humidity (RH) of 50 % and 100 %. Moreover, the EIS testing and fitting outcomes indicate that when the PEMFC performance is dominated by mass transport under high current density and 100 % cathode RH, the electrospun MPLs with a pore size exceeding 1.9 μm exhibit a better water discharge capacity and lower mass transport resistance.

Investigation on electrical and electrochemical behaviour of cellulose acetate: Ammonium iodide: Silica composite biopolymer electrolyte for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell performance

Cellulose acetate (CA): ammonium iodide (NH4I) solid biopolymer electrolyte and cellulose acetate (CA): ammonium iodide (NH4I): silica (SiO2) particle composite-based biopolymer electrolytes were developed via solution casting route for single proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) applications. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was used to identify the diffraction peaks and their corresponding angles, which led to the confirmation of the aforementioned biopolymer. The admixture of SiO2 into the 50CA:50NH4I improves the amorphous nature than 50CA:50NH4I in the XRD pattern. Using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) analysis, the CA:NH4I:SiO2 has found higher ionic conductivity, lower electrical resistance, and a lesser CPE value than the CA and CA:NH4I. The highest-conducting CA:NH4I:SiO2 and CA:NH4I developed were used in the construction of a single PEMFC, where the obtained power density values were 122.4 and 106.4 mWcm−2. The introduction of SiO2 admixtures with CA:NH4I has found relatively higher power density value than CA:NH4I.

Numerical simulation for non-uniform PtCo catalyst degradation under constant voltage condition and its impact on PEMFC performance

PtCo alloys are commonly utilized as catalysts in proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) to reduce Pt loading and to achieve higher oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity. However, long-time operation can result in a reduction in electrochemical surface area (ECSA) in PEMFC. Meanwhile, the dissolved Co2+ may also contribute to additional local oxygen transport resistance. In this study, catalyst aging model and Co2+ transport and its effect on oxygen transport model have been integrated with the 3D single phase PEMFC performance model to develop a long-term performance model for investigating the impact of non-uniform catalyst degradation and Co2+ contamination on PEMFC performance during constant voltage operation. The results show that Co2+ contamination causes additional mass transfer losses and reduces the peak power of PEMFC. And it is found that the non-uniform degradation of catalyst and Co2+contamination eventually affects the current density distribution in aged PEMFCs. In addition, the model is also applied to study a 50 cm2 PEMFC under long time constant voltage operation. The predicted ECSA loss is 73.1 % and 62.0 %, and output power reduction is 55.9 % and 43.0 % after 80,000 h at a constant voltage of 0.75 V and 0.65 V, respectively.

(Keynote) Interplay between Physicochemical Properties of Precursors and “Core-Shell” Hierarchical Carbon Nitride Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction

The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is a major bottleneck in the operation of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) since it introduces large overpotentials (no less than 250-300 mV), which degrade significantly the energy conversion efficiency of the device. In addition, the electrocatalysts (ECs) yielding the lowest ORR overpotentials in the acidic environment found at the PEMFC cathode are based on Pt, a very scarce critical raw material (CRM). Pt raises concerns as it might trigger serious supply bottlenecks in the event of a practical widespread implementation of PEMFCs in the framework of today’s energy transition. Hence, the development of high-performing and durable ECs for the ORR is a major stepping stone towards the large-scale rollout of PEMFCs.In our research group a new breakthrough approach has been devised for the synthesis of ORR ECs, that is completely different form the preparation routes that are commonly adopted in the state of the art [1, 2]. Briefly, the approach consists in the pyrolysis and subsequent treatment of a precursor obtained by coupling suitable carbon species/sacrificial supports with a zeolitic inorganic-organic polymer electrolyte (Z-IOPE). The latter comprises anionic complexes including the Pt “catalyst” and other “co-catalysts”, which are bridged by organic binders [1,2].On one hand, the proposed approach has already shown its potential to yield ECs exhibiting a performance and durability improved with respect to Pt/C benchmark ECs. On the other hand, the proposed approach is extremely flexible, especially with respect to the synthesis of the initial EC precursor. In principle, it is possible to modulate a number of crucial features of such EC precursor, with a particular reference to: (i) the chemical composition (e.g., in terms of Pt, other “co-catalysts” and N; the latter plays a crucial role to stabilize the active sites into “coordination nests” on the EC surface, raising durability); and (ii) the morphology, that can be “templated” on suitable species (e.g., carbon species, sacrificial supports). The very flexibility of the proposed synthetic process needs to be leveraged appropriately to maximize the performance of the final ORR ECs, at the same time minimizing the efforts wasted on approaches with a low development potential.Herein it is elucidated how the modulation in the parameters involved in the synthesis of the EC precursor (e.g., the binder and the approaches to couple the Z-IOPE with the support) impact the physicochemical and electrochemical properties of the final ECs, with a particular reference to the chemical composition, morphology and distribution of the ORR active sites. An extensive characterization of the final ECs is carried out. Inductively-coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and microanalysis are adopted to determine the bulk chemical composition. Near-ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (NAP-XPS) is used to elucidate the surface chemical composition and the chemical states of the surface elements. Ultra-high resolution scanning electron microscopy (UHR-SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) allow for the elucidation of EC morphology. The porosimetric features are probed by automatic gas adsorption instrumentations. Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) is crucial to resolve the crystal structure. Cyclic voltammetry with the rotating ring-disk electrode method (CV-TF-RRDE) is used to clarify the “ex-situ” electrochemical performance and ORR reaction mechanism. Finally, the most promising ECs are used in the fabrication of single PEMFCs, that are tested as a function of the operating conditions.It is revealed that, in comparison with the Pt/C benchamark, some ECs are characterized by a much higher intrinsic kinetic performance due to the electronic and bifunctional effects bestowed by the carbon nitride support and the «co-catalysts». Finally, the binder has a marked effect on the stoichiometry, size, and distribution of the PtMx aggregates bearing the active sites.

A technically feasible strategy using liquid-state thermocells to efficiently recover the waste heat released from proton exchange membrane fuel cells

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) generate a large amount of exhaust heat during operation, leading to environmental pollution and the greenhouse effect. To recover the low-grade exhaust heat produced by PEMFCs, a technically feasible approach is proposed by integrating liquid-state thermocells (LTCs) with PEMFCs for the cogeneration of electric power and efficient waste heat recovery. Considering the three overpotential losses in the PEMFC and the irreversible heat losses in the LTC, a comprehensive mathematical model of a PEMFC-LTC hybrid system is developed to explore the energetic performance characteristics and optimal device design. The results show that the hybrid system’s maximum power density and corresponding conversion efficiency are 0.3007 W cm−2 and 24.59%, which is increased by 6.22% and 19.41% compared to a single PEMFC, respectively. Furthermore, raising the PEMFC temperature, optimizing the length of the individual LTC cell, reducing the heat sink temperature, and lowering the thermal convection coefficient can significantly improve the optimal output performance of the hybrid system. Finally, the optimal performance comparisons between the PEMFC-based cogeneration systems reveal that LTCs can more efficiently recycle the waste heat released from the PEMFC than other previously reported devices. This work offers crucial theoretical guidance for the optimal design and parametric analysis of PEMFC-LTC hybrid systems, thus paving the way for developing high-performance energy cascade utilization systems based on PEMFCs.

Behavior analysis of PEMFC with geometric configuration variation during multiple-step loading reduction process

Load shedding could be a solution to water accumulation alleviation during the operation of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) engines. In this paper, multiple-step loading reduction strategies based on two laboratory-scale (25 cm2) single PEMFCs (assembled with triple-serpentine and single-serpentine flow field plates on the both electrodes and thus named after cell TS and cell SS respectively) are experimentally discussed and evaluated. The real-time pressure evolution and HFR are recorded, compared and analyzed to characterize water transfer phenomenon among the components. The investigation results suggest that: 1. From the perspective of output voltage and power after load reduction, the number of reduction step has little effect on the output performance; 2. Cell TS exhibits better homogeneous trend of pressure drop although with less water removal quantity comparing with that of cell SS, which is resulted from multi-channel configuration; 3. The cathode pressure drop of cell SS decreases obviously throughout the experiment, indicating the convinced water removal capability of single-serpentine configuration; 4. Constant increase of HFR reflects membrane dehydration when the loading reduces. This paper demonstrates the possibility of removing accumulated liquid water by reducing the load of PEMFCs.

Intriguing H2S Tolerance of the PtRu Alloy for Hydrogen Oxidation Catalysis in PEMFCs: Weakened Pt-S Binding with Slower Adsorption Kinetics.

High quality of hydrogen is the key to the long lifetime of proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) vehicles, while trace H2S impurities in hydrogen significantly affect their durability and fuel expense. Herein, we demonstrate a robust PtRu alloy catalyst with an intriguing H2S tolerance as the PEMFC anode, showing a stronger antipoisoning capability toward hydrogen oxidation reaction compared with the Pt/C anode. The PtRu/C-based single PEMFC shows approximately 14.3% loss of cell voltage after 3 h operation with 1 ppm of H2S in hydrogen, significantly lower than that of Pt/C-based PEMFCs (65%). By adopting PtRu/C as the anode, the H2S limit in hydrogen can be increased to 1.7 times that of the Pt/C anode, assuming that the PEMFC runs for 5000 h, which is conductive for the cost reduction of hydrogen purification. The three-electrode electrochemical test indicates that PtRu/C exhibits a slower adsorption kinetics toward S2- species with poisoning rates of 0.02782, 0.02982, and 0.03682 min-1 at temperatures of 25, 35, and 45 °C, respectively, all lower than those of Pt/C. X-ray absorption fine structure spectra indicate the weakened Pt-S binding for PtRu/C in comparison to Pt/C with a longer Pt-S bond length. Density functional theory calculation analyses reveal that adsorption energy of sulfur on the Pt surface was reduced for PtRu/C, showing 1-10% decrease at different Pt sites for (111), (110), and (100) planes, which is ascribed to the downshifted Pt d-band center caused by the ligand and strain effects due to the introduction of second metallic Ru. This work provides a valuable guide for the development of the H2S-tolerant catalysts for long-term application of PEMFCs.

Study of Mechanical Properties of Membrane-Electrode Assemblies for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells By the Small-Punch Technique

Mechanical properties of membrane-electrode assemblies (MEAs) are most relevant for the durability of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) [1]. During operation, the MEA must endure eventual changes in the static pressure of anodes and cathodes caused by changes in power demand, gases flow rate, and/or water generation, accompanied by hygrothermal cycles, that cause mechanical stresses in the membrane, leading to cracks and possible fatal failure [2]. In parallel, the mechanical properties of MEAs change irreversibly during power production as a consequence of membrane and electrodes corrosion [3]. Therefore, it is of interest to characterize the mechanical properties of MEAs before assembly, and after operation.The small-punch is a new technique for testing mechanical properties of solids. It consists of measuring the deformation of a disc of the testing material with a ‘small puncher’, while recording the load (force) exerted by the puncher and the deflection produced on the specimen (Fig. 1a) [4]. The plot load vs deflection allows estimating mechanical strength, fracture toughness, impact, and tensile properties. Most interesting is that the disk specimen can be as small as a few millimeters, which makes the small-punch technique very appropriate when the amount of sample is limited, and for localized studies of mechanical properties.In this communication, results of the small-punch technique are shown for the study of MEAs operated in single PEMFCs (Fig. 1b). The analysis is carried out of the local mechanical properties on new and degraded MEAs. First results show that local mechanical properties of the aged MEA correlate well with gas feeding conditions and reflect laterally inhomogeneous degradation (Fig. 1b).Acknowledgement: The work is partially financed by the ELHYPORT project (PID2019−110896RB-I00), Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.[1] X. Huang, R, Solasi, Y. Zou, M. Feshler, K. Reifsnider, D. Condit, S. Burtlatsky, T. Madden, J. Polymer Science: Part B: Polymer Physics, Vol. 44, 2346–2357 (2006).[2] Z. Lu, M. Lugo, M.H. Santare, A.M. Karlsson, F.C. Busby, P. Walsh, J. Power Sources 214 (2012) 130-136.[3] M. Pestrak, Y. Li, S.W. Case, D.A. Dillard, M.W. Ellis, Y-H. Lai, C. S. Gittleman, J. Fuel Cell Sci. Technol. (2010), 7(4): 041009.[4] EN 10371:2021 Metallic materials - Small punch test method. CEN, Brussels (2021) Figure 1

Multiscale Study of PEMFC in Marine Environment: Impact of a NaCl Spray on Durability

In the wake of the growing environmental challenges, hydrogen produced from renewable energy is a good candidate as a substitute for conventional fuels. Indeed, fuel cells can produce electricity thanks to air and hydrogen, and only reject water. The use of this technology is currently emerging in various sectors, such as the maritime industry. However, sea salt aerosols, mostly composed of sodium chloride (NaCl), can damage fuel cells. So far, only a few studies have been dedicated to the impact of NaCl on Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) though showing that salty air can induce a significant loss of performance without clearly identifying the underlying physicochemical mechanisms [1][2][3].Thus, the present experimental work investigates the effects of a salt spray injected into the airflow of single PEMFC cells and stacks at various time scales and contamination levels, with the final aim of identifying the appropriate PEMFC stack protection needed for maritime applications. A dedicated experimental setup generating salt spray in the cathode airflow of a single cell and 5-cells stack has been designed, realized and characterized. The NaCl concentration range used is from 10 mg/m3 to 5 g/m3, to reproduce different types of salty environments. Cells and stacks are operated in constant current density mode.The study is conducted under the conditions of accelerated stress tests. When polluted at high concentrations, single cells degradation becomes significant after only a few minutes of operation (Figure 1) and after a few hours for stacks. Even under low concentrated environments, the single cell voltage decreases faster than the baseline (ie reference voltage with pure water in air stream), leading to PEMFC lifetime shortening. It has been observed that cathode rinsing with nitrogen flow or operation under pure water results in partial cell performance recovery. Moreover, starts-up and shuts-down operated during tests can have a positive or negative influence on cell performance, depending on the break duration.Even when the tests revealed only weak decrease in power, Membrane Electrode Assemblies (MEA) and bipolar plates (BP) post-mortem characterizations highlight degradations. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) studies coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) have contributed to the identification of components in MEA and BP. As expected, chlorine reaches not only the cathode gas diffusion layer (GDL) and catalyst layer (CL) but also the anode CL by crossing the membrane [4]. According to the literature, chloride adsorption on Pt surface or Pt dissolution reduces the active area [3] whereas sodium ion contaminates the membrane [1]. Moreover, corrosion products from metallic components have been found. Corrosion marks identified as stainless steel from BP are present in the stack effluents and MEAs. As for single cell, compounds from current collectors (gold, nickel and copper) are present in the GDL and CL. In the near future, for single cell tests, non-metallic current collectors will be used in order to discriminate the effects of the direct degradation of salt spray on MEA and indirect degradation coming from corrosion products of metallic cell components.Overall, the present study reports that NaCl effects on PEMFCs not only depend on the concentration of the NaCl mist but also on the MEA type, current collectors/BP material, and startup/shutdown procedure. In the full paper and oral presentation, tests conducted with less concentrated NaCl droplets will also be presented, with the aim of determining adegradation threshold for single cells.

Experimental Validation of an Active Fault Tolerant Control Strategy Applied to a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

Reliability of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) is a major issue for large industrialization and commercialization. Indeed, performance can be degraded due to abnormal operating conditions, namely, faults, which lead either to a transient decay of the fuel cell performance or to permanent damage that cannot be recovered. The literature shows that long-time exposure to faults leads to fuel cell degradation. Therefore, it is necessary to use tools that can not only diagnose these faulty conditions, but also modify the fuel cell operations to recover a healthy operating point. For that purpose, one approach is the Active Fault Tolerant Control (AFTC) strategy which is composed of three functions. First, a diagnosis part allows fault detection and identification. Then a decision part, which is an algorithm aiming at finding a new operating point that mitigates the occurring fault. Finally, a control part applies the mitigation strategy established by the decision algorithm. The present work focuses on the decision part. and aims to bring a new contribution to PEMFCs reliability improvement and address water management issues, namely, the cell flooding and membrane drying out with the developed AFTC tool. The strategy is tested and validated on a single PEMFC cell and results are presented, analyzed, and discussed.

Impact of Accelerated Stress Tests on the Cathodic Catalytic Layer in a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell Studied by Identical Location Scanning Electron Microscopy

Platinum is the most used electrocatalyst in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Nonetheless, it suffers from various types of degradation. Identical location electron microscopy has previously been used to observe local catalyst changes under accelerated stress tests (ASTs), giving insight into how individual catalyst particles degrade. However, it is important that such studies are carried out under relevant reaction conditions, as these can differ substantially between liquid half-cells and real PEMFC conditions. In this work, a single cell PEMFC was used to study the degradation of a commercial Pt-catalyzed membrane electrode assembly by performing square wave voltage ASTs in a potential range of 0.6 to 1.0 V. Identical location scanning electron microscopy (IL-SEM) was used to follow the degradation of the cathodic catalytic layer (CL) throughout 14,000 AST cycles. From the IL-SEM, we can conclude that the Pt nanoparticles degrade via Ostwald ripening, crystal migration, and coalescence. Small Pt nanoparticles agglomerate to larger particles or dissolve and redeposit to more stable particles, increasing the average particle size during the ASTs. In addition, cross-sectional TEM images show thinning of the ionomer layer during the AST procedure. The IL-SEM technique facilitates observation of local degradation of the CL in real PEMFCs, which will help to understand different degradation mechanisms, allowing for better solutions to be designed.

VALIDATION OF SEMI-EMPIRICAL TEMPERATURE MODEL OF PEMFC USING ATOM SEARCH OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) has unique thermal characteristics. The change in PEMFC temperature directly effects the PEMFC performance. The voltage and temperature of PEMFC at different loading/ambient conditions is not easy to predict. In this work a newly developed semi-empirical model is used and the parameters of the model are optimized for single cell PEMFC (base-case) by using atom search optimization. The semi-empirical model was developed and tested for stack PEMFC system but any model developed for PEMFC cannot be validated unless it is effective for single-cell PEMFC system. The new parameters show promising results and hence the model works is considered as good model. Previously due to unknown base-case parameters the ranges selected for parameters are extremely large. In this model by considering the base-case parameters and previously extracted parameters the new short ranges for parameters are given so that in future the optimization of parameters will take less time and this increases the chances of this model to be used in online prediction of PEMFC temperature.