Single Assessment Method Research Articles

Health assessment of small-to-medium sized rivers: Comparison between comprehensive indicator method and biological monitoring method

Small-to-medium sized rivers play an important role in aquatic ecosystem functioning. In developing countries, limited by the number of monitoring sites in small-to-medium sized rivers, a single standard river health assessment method may not be able to reflect the actual situations under the pressure of increasing human activities and water conservancy projects. How to assess the health status of these rivers is of global concern. In this study, a small-to-medium sized river in China - Qiaobian River (QBR) was assessed by two essential river health assessment methods, i.e., Macroinvertebrate habitat suitable curve (M−HSC) and Pressure-State-Response framework (PSR). The applicability of the two methods was evaluated. The results demonstrated that both methods were suitable and achieved a better accuracy than water quality assessment framework, a standard method that has been widely applied to small-to-medium sized rivers in China, while minor differences in effectiveness were found between the two methods. Although both PSR and M−HSC methods showed the same health degree in wet season, M−HSC is more recommendable due to its convenience. On the contrary, in dry season, PSR better reflected the actual situations of QBR than M−HSC. The PSR was more applicable to urban rivers when evaluating the impacts of anthropogenic disturbances to river health, in contrast to M−HSC which was better suitable for rivers in rural areas to evaluate the effects of water conservancy projects. Our findings provide a new perspective on assessing health of small-to-medium sized rivers and important implications for ecological indication and conservation.

Reliability assessment method of DC protection system based on hierarchical modeling

The structure of DC transmission system is complexity, and the characteristics differ from components to components. It is difficult to adopt a single reliability assessment method for HVDC transmission protection system to be comprehensive, rapid and accurate. A reliability assessment method based on hierarchical modeling is proposed. At first the structure of DC transmission protection system is analyzed. It is divided into system layer, module layer and component layer. Then according to the characteristics of each layer, appropriate assessment methods are selected to assess each layer of the protection system. And corresponding reliability index is set the to realize the connection between each layer. Taking a DC transmission project as an example, the comprehensive reliability assessment of the protection system is carried out. Thereby the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed method is validated.

How well do nursing staff assess the wellbeing of nursing home residents? An explorative study of using single-question scales

AbstractPerson-centred care requires improved documentation of nursing home resident wellbeing, e.g. by nursing staff proxy assessments. Previous studies mainly focused on proxy self-report agreement of quality of life of people with dementia, using lengthy questionnaires. This is the first study to investigate how well nursing staff assess residents’ wellbeing after training, using a single-question assessment method of happiness and engagement. We conducted a cross-sectional mixed-method study, including proxy assessments from 49 nursing staff, and self-reports from 49 nursing home residents without dementia (mean age 85). We explored agreement between colleagues, and between proxy assessments and self-reports, and potential nursing staff characteristics associated to this (age, experience, hours worked per week). Brief written motivations were evaluated on nursing staffs’ understanding of the happiness and engagement concepts. The results showed low agreement between colleagues, and low agreement between proxy assessments and self-reports. Nursing staff assessed happiness and engagement substantially higher than residents’ self-reports. Hours worked per week was related to happiness proxy assessments, but none of the included nursing staff characteristics were related to proxy self-report agreement. Nursing staff interpreted the concepts in diverse ways. Overestimating resident wellbeing when using this single-assessment method may undermine subsequent efforts to improve wellbeing. We could not identify which nursing staff could best provide wellbeing assessments. For now, proxy wellbeing assessments should always be combined with regular self-reports whenever possible.

Relative validity of FFQ to assess food items, energy, macronutrient and micronutrient intake in children and adolescents: a systematic review with meta-analysis.

FFQ are one of the most widely used tools of research into nutritional epidemiology, and many studies have been conducted in several countries using this dietary assessment method. The present study aimed to evaluate the relative validity of FFQ, in comparison with other methods, in assessing dietary intake of children and adolescents, through a systematic review. Four electronic databases (Embase, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science) found sixty-seven articles, which met the inclusion criteria (healthy children and adolescents from 3 to 18 years of age; journal articles written in English, Spanish and Portuguese between 1988 and March 2019; results showing the comparison between the FFQ with other methods of assessment of dietary intake). The articles were analysed by two independent reviewers. A meta-analysis was conducted using correlation coefficients as estimate effects between the FFQ and the reference standard method. Subgroup analysis and meta-regression were performed to identify the probable source of heterogeneity. In fifty-five of the sixty-seven studies, a single dietary assessment method was used to evaluate the FFQ; nine combined the two methods and three used three reference methods. The most widely used reference method was the 24-h recall, followed by the food record. The overall relative validity of the FFQ to estimate energy, macronutrient, certain micronutrient and certain food item intakes in children and adolescents may be considered weak. The study protocol was registered in PROSPERO under number CRD42016038706.

Craving is impermanent and it matters: Investigating craving and cannabis use among young adults with problematic use interested in reducing use

Rates of problematic cannabis use have nearly doubled over the last decade, and peak onset for cannabis use disorders occurs during young adulthood. Craving for cannabis is hypothesized to be an important factor that maintains cannabis use among people who desire to stop or reduce their use, including many young adults. Previous studies that used single timepoint assessment methods to demonstrate a link between craving and cannabis use have found mixed predictive utility of measurements. The impermanent, or time-varying nature of craving may be responsible for mixed findings, leading to inaccuracies in retrospective recall and greater difficulty measuring craving and detecting its association with cannabis use. The current study compared intensive longitudinal assessments and single timepoint assessments predicting cannabis use among young adults with problematic cannabis use who reported a desire to reduce their use. Participants (N = 80) completed a baseline craving questionnaire and intensive longitudinal assessments of momentary craving and cannabis use up to four times per day for 14 days. Results suggested that averaged momentary craving predicted cannabis use above-and-beyond craving measured at baseline. An increase of one SD above the sample-mean for averaged momentary craving increased the probability of cannabis use by 367 %, while a one SD increase in baseline craving was only associated with a 49 % increase. Findings suggest that asking young adults who want to cut back on their cannabis use about their craving at a single timepoint may not be as clinically useful as tracking cravings repeatedly in near real-time and in ecologically valid contexts.

Three Goals of Assessment in Medical Education

Assessment is closely connected to learning since assessment allows a learner’s current competencies to be measured. The results of such a measurement can then be used to produce learning. There are three goals for assessment in medical education: assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning. These three goals serve different purposes and therefore differ in how they are carried out. They also require different approaches for the assessors. It is crucial that all three goals be balanced and attained lest the testing culture wax and the learning culture wane, resulting in a situation in which learners place too much emphasis on passing the tests and not enough emphasis on learning and growing. No single method of assessment can sufficiently achieve all three goals. One comprehensive approach to achieve as well as balance all three goals is to utilize programmatic assessment, in which various methods of assessment are employed based on their strengths and how they can cover each other’s limitations.

A comprehensive assessment of the investment attractiveness of a startup

The article deals with the method of comprehensive assessment of the investment attractiveness of a startup project and the criteria for its effectiveness. Investment attractiveness of a startup is such an economic category, which is a complex indicator of objective and subjective characteristics of a startup, characterized by the efficiency of using the property of the enterprise, its solvency, financial stability, the ability to self-development on the basis of increasing the return on capital, quality and competitiveness of products, and reflecting the feasibility of investing funds. To select the optimal criteria for the investment attractiveness of a startup and develop the necessary procedures for their use, the first part of the article considers the problems in the activities of enterprises that can affect their investment attractiveness. In relation to the selected components, the criteria for assessing their condition and the degree of influence on investment attractiveness are determined. When selecting a startup project, the authors proposed a number of important criteria, of which at least 6 were singled out. Their availability and sufficiency are necessary conditions for its intended implementation. Further, the authors propose a single method of comprehensive assessment of the level of investment attractiveness of a startup. The presence and possession of such a technique will allow the head to make up for the lack of experience in the implementation of startup projects and the development of new innovative ideas, as many, falling into force majeure experience confusion and panic, which often leads to significant financial losses. To do this, a number of elements that have the greatest impact on investment characteristics are pre-allocated in the structure of the proposed business startup. Thus, this study helps potential investors of financial resources in new start-up projects to carry out forecasting in advance and avoid the main problems that arise in front of them when applying the developed methodology of their assessment.

28. Evaluation of three commercially available synthetic bone grafts in a clinically relevant ovine model of instrumented lumbar posterolateral fusion

BACKGROUND CONTEXT Synthetic bone grafts are important tools for spinal surgeons who wish to avoid the invasive harvesting of autologous bone graft for spinal fusions. Various synthetic bone grafts are available on the market, including materials based on bioglass, calcium phosphate or a combination of both. Side-by-side comparisons of synthetic bone grafts in relevant preclinical study models can provide valuable insights that can aid in the selection of treatment options. PURPOSE The current study compared three commercially available synthetic bone grafts as stand-alone grafts in a clinically relevant ovine model of instrumented posterolateral fusion (PLF). STUDY DESIGN/SETTING The three different synthetic bone grafts evaluated are: (1) putty formulation of biphasic calcium phosphate with submicron topography that was previously shown to have equivalent performance to autograft in this model (BCP; MagnetOs Putty, Kuros Biosciences BV), (2) putty formulation of 45S5 bioglass (BG; Novabone Putty, Novabone Products LLC), (3) composite of beta-tri-calcium phosphate, 45S5 bioglass and bovine type I collagen (TCP+BG; Vitoss BA2X Foam pack, Orthovita, Inc). Autograft bone (AB) was used as positive control. Twelve weeks after implantation, the treatments were evaluated. OUTCOME MEASURES Main study end points include fusion assessment by manual palpation, X-ray imaging and micro-CT scans. Range of motion (ROM) of spine levels was assessed in lateral bending (LB) and flexion-extension (FE). Quantification of fusion mass volume was performed using micro-CT. Histology was performed to evaluate bone formation and tissue responses with the different graft materials. METHODS Following ethical approval, 9 sheep underwent instrumented PLF surgery at L2-3 and L4-5 levels. Autograft was harvested from the Os Ilium and distal femur. After decortication of the transverse processes (TPs), 10 cc of each graft material (AB; n=6, BCP; n=6, BG; n=3, TCP+BG; n=3) was implanted bilaterally in the posterolateral regions, bridging the inter-transverse process space. After sacrifice, specimens were assessed by manual palpation, X-ray imaging, Micro-CT and ROM testing at 7.5 Nm after removing instrumentation. Subsequently, treated spine levels were processed for histology in polymethylmethacrylate to visualize bone tissue in the fusion mass. RESULTS Fusion assessment by manual palpation revealed a 6/6 fusion rate for AB and BCP, while for both BG and TCP+BG, a 1/3 fusion rate was determined. Fusion assessment of X-ray and Micro-CT were consistent and determined an either unilateral or bilateral robust bone bridge in 6/6 levels for both AB and BCP, while The BG group exhibited unilateral bridging in 2/3 levels and the TCP+BG group did not include a robust bone bridge in any of the levels. ROM testing revealed equivalent ROMs in LB and FE for AB and BCP, being substantially and significantly lower than those of BG and TCP+BG groups. Fusion mass volume quantification determined fusion mass volumes of 5.7 ± 1.6 cm3 for AB, 9.6 ± 0.4 cm3 for BCP, 3.0 ± 1.1 cm3 for BG and 2.4 ± 1.0 cm3 for TCP+BG. Correspondingly, histology revealed significant graft resorption for BG and TCP+BG groups, while abundant bone tissue in the inter-TP space was observed for AB and BCP. A continuous bony bridge in between TPs was frequently observed in the BCP group on histological sections. CONCLUSIONS Calcium phosphate with submicron topography was the only synthetic bone graft to perform equally well as autograft as a stand-alone graft in this PLF model. Both bioglass-based bone grafts significantly underperformed as compared to autograft and BCP on every single assessment method. The bioglass-based synthetics were observed to undergo significant resorption and were not able to induce bone formation in the soft tissue region in between the TPs. Calcium phosphate with submicron topography may be the better treatment option than bioglass-based bone grafts as a synthetic bone graft substitute. FDA DEVICE/DRUG STATUS MagnetOs Granules (Investigational/Not approved), Novabone Putty (Approved for this indication), Vitoss BA2X (Approved for this indication).

Forensic medical evaluation of postmortem changes in postmortem interval determination

This article presents an overview of scientific sources, which reveals advantages and disadvantages of modern methods for assessing postmortem changes to optimize the determination of postmortem interval (PMI) in the forensic experts’ practice and to identify promising areas for further research.The purpose of the work is to explore peculiarities of PMI determination methods which are based on the evaluation of postmortem changes, through analysis of modern scientific literature.Conclusion. The state of the corpses on the place of discovery of crime is different and a variety of factors can affect the postmortem changes before experts arrive. Therefore, it is difficult to compare laboratory trials and real cases due to climate differences, geographic location, peculiarities of methods used, as well as research settings. Presently, there is no single assessment method that could accurately calculate a PMI in the range from several hours to several months, so now it is necessary to develop and implement new methods for PMI determination.

The Exoskeleton Balance Assistance Control Strategy Based on Single Step Balance Assessment

A novel balance assistance control strategy of a hip exoskeleton robot was proposed in this paper. The organic fusion of the human balance assessment and the exoskeleton balance assistance control strategy are the assurance of balance recovery. However, currently there are few human balance assessment methods that are suitable for detecting balance loss during standing and walking, and very little research has focused on exoskeleton balance recovery control. In this paper, a single step balance assessment method was proposed first, and then based on this method an "assist-as-needed" balance assistance control strategy was established. Finally, the exoskeleton balance assistance control experiment was carried out. The experiment results verified the effectiveness of the single balance assessment method and the active balance assistance control strategy.

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT IN MA DI PUTRA NURUL HAKIM IN THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2017/2018

This research was conducted in attempt to analyze and describe the types of authentic assessment implemented by the EFL Teachers at MA DI PUTRA NURUL HAKIM. This research applied a descriptive research designsince it was aimed at analyzing and describing the types of authentic assessment practiced by the EFL teachers in English classes in MA DI PUTRA NURUL HAKIM. The method of gathering the data was observation supported with document study and interview to get more deeply. In relation to the problem raised, the current study found that there were various types of authentic assessment used by the EFL teachers. They were oral presentations and dramatizations, story telling, reading aloud,demonstration, constructed response items, writing samples, and peer assessment. The researcheralso found that the EFL teachers integrated one skill with others since one single method of assessment can be used to assess more than one skill, and one skill was assessed by using some types of assessement

Enrichment Levels and Comprehensive Pollution Assessment of Dust Heavy Metals in Winter in Beijing

Dust reflects the natural subsidence of particles and is thus generally accepted as an important environmental indicator. Dust heavy metals find their way into soil or water via atmospheric deposition, potentially damaging plants, aquatic organisms, as well as human beings. In order to study the concentration levels, enrichment degrees, and comprehensive pollution characteristics of the dust heavy metals Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, V, Bi, and Mo in winter in Beijing, 49 groups of dust samples were collected from different locations within the city from November 2013 to March 2014. Heavy metal content (mass percentage) was then measured using Elan DRC Ⅱ type inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results showed that the average content of Cd, Bi, and Mo was less than 10 mg·kg-1, that of Co, Ni, and V was between 10 and 100 mg·kg-1, while that of Pb, Cr, Cu, and Zn was more than 100 mg·kg-1. The amount of Cd, Zn, and Cu in dust samples was generally higher than their secondary standard values in the soil environment. The secondary standard excess rates of Cd, Zn, and Cu were 100%, 97%, and 93.9% in urban environments, and 100%, 100%, and 81.2% in suburban environments, respectively. Results also indicated slight enrichment of Bi, Cu, Ni, and Pb, mainly derived from crustal or soil sources, while Cd, Cr, Mo, and Zn, exhibited mild enrichment, caused by a combination of natural and artificial sources. The paper proposes a "dust heavy metal comprehensive pollution index" model, based on the traditional single pollution assessment method, so as to explore comprehensive pollution characteristics of dust heavy metals in Beijing. Results for the dust heavy metal comprehensive pollution index in Beijing City were in the order of Cd > Zn > Cu > Pb > Cr > Ni > V > Co. Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb were identified as key pollution factors, with Cd and Zn as primary factors. Results for the dust heavy metal comprehensive pollution index in Beijing suburbs was Cd > Zn > Cu > Pb > Cr > Ni > Co > V. Cd, Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cr were key pollution factors, with Cd and Zn as primary factors.

A new method for water quality assessment: by harmony degree equation.

Water quality assessment is an important basic work in the development, utilization, management, and protection of water resources, and also a prerequisite for water safety. In this paper, the harmony degree equation (HDE) was introduced into the research of water quality assessment, and a new method for water quality assessment was proposed according to the HDE: by harmony degree equation (WQA-HDE). First of all, the calculation steps and ideas of this method were described in detail, and then, this method with some other important methods of water quality assessment (single factor assessment method, mean-type comprehensive index assessment method, and multi-level gray correlation assessment method) were used to assess the water quality of the Shaying River (the largest tributary of the Huaihe in China). For this purpose, 2years (2013-2014) dataset of nine water quality variables covering seven monitoring sites, and approximately 189 observations were used to compare and analyze the characteristics and advantages of the new method. The results showed that the calculation steps of WQA-HDE are similar to the comprehensive assessment method, and WQA-HDE is more operational comparing with the results of other water quality assessment methods. In addition, this new method shows good flexibility by setting the judgment criteria value HD0 of water quality; when HD0 = 0.8, the results are closer to reality, and more realistic and reliable. Particularly, when HD0 = 1, the results of WQA-HDE are consistent with the single factor assessment method, both methods are subject to the most stringent "one vote veto" judgment condition. So, WQA-HDE is a composite method that combines the single factor assessment and comprehensive assessment. This research not only broadens the research field of theoretical method system of harmony theory but also promotes the unity of water quality assessment method and can be used for reference in other comprehensive assessment.

Addiction and Suicide: An Unmet Public Health Crisis

Addiction and Suicide: An Unmet Public Health Crisis

Critical analysis of risk assessment methods applied to construction works

DOI : 10.7764/RDLC.16.1.104 This paper studies the possibility of using the following occupational risk assessment methods for construction works: INSHT, ANACT, THREP, SHERPA, RNUR, EVENT TREE, LEST, FINE, ERGONOMIC ANALYSIS and PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS. Of these methods, INSHT, ANACT, RNUR and FINE have been selected with the objective of applying them to real building works, in order to determine the discrepancies in the results obtained compared to the risks analyzed. The results make it possible to ascertain the types of risk which each method most reliably detects, there being methods which are not able to detect extreme or very low risks. It is concluded that if a single risk assessment method is used, the results do not entirely reflect reality, as such it is necessary to establish a new risk assessment methodology for construction works.

Critical analysis of risk assessment methods applied to construction works

This paper studies the possibility of using the following occupational risk assessment methods for construction works: INSHT, ANACT, THREP, SHERPA, RNUR, EVENT TREE, LEST, FINE, ERGONOMIC ANALYSIS and PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS. Of these methods, INSHT, ANACT, RNUR and FINE have been selected with the objective of applying them to real building works, in order to determine the discrepancies in the results obtained compared to the risks analyzed. The results make it possible to ascertain the types of risk which each method most reliably detects, there being methods which are not able to detect extreme or very low risks. It is concluded that if a single risk assessment method is used, the results do not entirely reflect reality, as such it is necessary to establish a new risk assessment methodology for construction works.

The Foreign Exchange Exposure of Domestic Companies in Eurozone: Case of the Baltic States

JEL Classification: G32, F31 Introduction In an increasingly globalizing world, companies in small open economies such as Baltic are not isolated from the effects of international economic cycles, currency movements, and global competition. Since mid-2008, foreign exchange markets have become more volatile due to the financial crisis in 2008 and the currency wars. Between mid-2012 and mid-2014, the euro increased in value by 10% compared to other currencies, but this trend has reversed over the last six months, and the effective exchange rate has fallen by 5.2%. Between spring 2014 and late January 2015, the euro depreciated by almost 20% against the US dollar and by about 10% against the British pound, driven by increasingly diverging monetary policy stances and growth dynamics. Generally, risk contribution from unhedged currency exposures could be higher than it used to be in the past. For this reason foreign exchange risk management may be more of a priority than ever. Nowadays companies face the challenge of evaluating the potential loss of transactions, especially in light of the recent financial crisis that showed what can happen as a result of poor risk management policy. Value -at-Risk (VaR) holds a special place in the risk management--it is used almost everywhere. VaR is particularly important because it is used to calculate the market risk component of regulatory capital under the Basel Committee and it is one of the most applied risk measure in investment portfolio theory, financial control and financial reporting as well. In this paper we have applied VaR methods for non-financial companies' foreign exchange exposure measurement. As a misleading VaR estimate can lead to bad judgement on foreign exchange exposure and, consequently, to bad risk management, there is a need for an examination of VaR applications in the context of Baltic non-financial companies. The measure of foreign exchange exposure lies in the variety of difficulties. First of all, there is no single unambiguous method of risk assessment, as different methods may produce different results. Secondly, each method has its own faults. The object of this research is foreign exchange risk measurement and management for the Baltic States companies. The purpose of this research is by analysing different issues relating to the measurement and management of foreign exchange exposure to propose Baltic companies better ways to manage their outstanding currency positions. To achieve the purpose the following tasks were conducted: 1. Analysis of the theoretical aspects of the measuring and managing currency exposure. 2. Analysis of Baltic companies' financial reports data to clarify risk management activities. 3. Clarifying firms' attitudes towards foreign exchange risk management in the Baltic States. 4. Estimating different VaR methods to measure foreign exchange exposure. 5. Development of recommendation how Baltic companies should manage their outstanding currency positions. The research methodology used in this paper is generally accepted qualitative and quantitative methods of economic research, including Value-at-Risk (VaR) methods to measure risks for different horizons and by testing different observation periods of open positions. The paper starts with a literature review in order to highlight the difficulties faced by non-financial companies in identifying, measuring and managing foreign exchange risk. The analysis conducted in this paper is based on companies' financial reports' data and statistics, and certain empirical studies. The data set is based on firms that were publicly listed on NASDAQ OMX Baltic Stock Exchange lists. Baltic Regulated market is the primary market of the NASDAQ OMX Baltic exchanges, which is regulated under EU directives and is under the supervision of the national FSA. The listing requirements are based on European standards and EU directives, and intended for companies that are well established. …

Exploring valid and reliable assessment methods for care management education.

Purpose It is assumed that the use of valid and reliable assessment methods can facilitate the development of medical residents' management and leadership competencies. To justify this assertion, the perceptions of an expert panel of health care leaders were explored on assessment methods used for evaluating care management (CM) development in Dutch residency programs. This paper aims to investigate how assessors and trainees value these methods and examine for any inherent benefits or shortcomings when they are applied in practice. Design/methodology/approach A Delphi survey was conducted among members of the platform for medical leadership in The Netherlands. This panel of experts was made up of clinical educators, practitioners and residents interested in CM education. Findings Of the respondents, 40 (55.6 per cent) and 31 (43 per cent) participated in the first and second rounds of the Delphi survey, respectively. The respondents agreed that assessment methods currently being used to measure residents' CM competencies were weak, though feasible for use in many residency programs. Multi-source feedback (MSF, 92.1 per cent), portfolio/e-portfolio (86.8 per cent) and knowledge testing (76.3 per cent) were identified as the most commonly known assessment methods with familiarity rates exceeding 75 per cent. Practical implications The findings suggested that an "assessment framework" comprising MSF, portfolios, individual process improvement projects or self-reflections and observations in clinical practice should be used to measure CM competencies in residents. Originality/value This study reaffirms the need for objective methods to assess CM skills in post-graduate medical education, as there was not a single assessment method that stood out as the best instrument.

Amending Miller’s Pyramid to Include Professional Identity Formation

In 1990, George Miller published an article entitled "The Assessment of Clinical Skills/Competence/Performance" that had an immediate and lasting impact on medical education. In his classic article, he stated that no single method of assessment could encompass the intricacies and complexities of medical practice. To provide a structured approach to the assessment of medical competence, he proposed a pyramidal structure with four levels, each of which required specific methods of assessment. As is well known, the layers are "Knows," "Knows How," "Shows How," and "Does." Miller's pyramid has guided assessment since its introduction; it has also been used to assist in the assessment of professionalism.The recent emphasis on professional identity formation has raised questions about the appropriateness of "Does" as the highest level of aspiration. It is believed that a more reliable indicator of professional behavior is the incorporation of the values and attitudes of the professional into the identity of the aspiring physician. It is therefore proposed that a fifth level be added at the apex of the pyramid. This level, reflecting the presence of a professional identity, should be "Is," and methods of assessing progress toward a professional identity and the nature of the identity in formation should be guided by currently available methods.

Life Cycle Assessment of Bio- and Petro-Chemical Adhesives Used in Fiberboard Production

Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to compare the impacts of two adhesive systems used for medium density fiberboard. Adhesives made from a theoretical protein–lignin-composite and petrochemical feedstocks were investigated. The inventory data was obtained from published literature, site investigations and laboratory scale experiments. Ecoindicator 99, a single score sustainability impact assessment method was applied. Our calculations reveal that the bioadhesive composed only of bio-based ingredients has a 22 % lower life cycle impact than the adhesive from petrochemical origin. The principal impact on both petrochemical and bioadhesive manufacture comes from the use of local mineral resources and the bioadhesive shows a considerable decrease (39 %) in environmental impact scores compared to the petrochemical adhesive. Underlying issues in LCA methodology are discussed in relation to potential contribution to the value proposition and ingredient selection for emerging bioadhesives.