Single-child Families Research Articles

Prevalence and factors associated with postpartum depression in women from single-child families.

To investigate the prevalence of postpartum depression (PPD) and its associated factors among women without siblings from south China. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 468 mothers from single-child families who were assessed at 6weeks after childbirth at a tertiary hospital in Guangzhou, China, from June 2015 to July 2016. The Chinese version of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and a self-designed questionnaire regarding risk factors were administered to all participants. The prevalence of PPD in women from single-child families was 56.2%. A multivariate logistic regression model identified the following pregnancy-related and psychological risk factors: unplanned pregnancy (odds ratio [OR] 2.35, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.73-3.32), being a first-time mother (OR 3.00, 95% CI 1.73-4.93), poor mother-in-law relationship (OR 3.15, 95% CI 2.93-3.36), and poor family support (OR 2.13, 95% CI 1.84-2.45). Sociodemographic characteristics were not associated with the development of PPD. The development of PPD in women from single-child families is an important public health concern. Health practitioners should offer psychoeducation and culturally sensitive counseling during the postpartum period, and the screening of mood disorders from the prenatal to the postpartum period should be covered by maternity insurance.

Comparison of the Relationship between Women' Empowerment and Fertility between Single-child and Multi-child Families.

Background:The reduction in fertility and increase in the number of single-child families in Iran will result in an increased risk of population aging. One of the factors affecting fertility is women's empowerment. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between women's empowerment and fertility in single-child and multi-child families.Materials and Methods:This case-control study was conducted among 350 women (120 who had only 1 child as case group and 230 who had 2 or more children as control group) of 15–49 years of age in Isfahan, Iran, in 2016. For data collection, a 2-part questionnaire was designed. Data were analyzed using independent t-test, Chi-square test, and logistic regression analysis.Results:The difference between average scores of women's empowerment in the case group 54.08 (9.88) and control group 51.47 (8.57) was significant (p = 0.002). Simple logistic regression analysis showed that under diploma education, compared to postgraduate education, (OR = 0.21, p = 0.001) and being a housewife, compared to being employed, (OR = 0.45, p = 0.004) decreased the odds of having only 1 child. Multiple logistic regression results showed that the relationship between women's empowerment and fertility was not significant (p = 0.265).Conclusions:Although women in single-child families were more empowered, this was not the main reason for their preference to have only 1 child. In fact, educated and employed women postpone marriage and childbearing and limit fertility to only 1 child despite their desire.

Are single children more likely to be overweight or obese than those with siblings? The influence of China's one-child policy on childhood obesity.

China's one-child policy (1979-2015) has affected Chinese parenting practices and children's health behaviors and also may have contributed to increased childhood obesity. However, very limited research has investigated the association between one-child policy and childhood obesity. We examined characteristics of single-child families and the influence of one-child policy (indicated by single-child status) on children's weight status and related health behaviors. Data from children aged 6-18years old in the 2011 (n=1580) and 2000 (n=2317) China Health and Nutrition Survey were cross-sectionally analyzed with multilevel models. From 2000 to 2011, the rates about doubled for being a single-child (30.1% to 57.0%) and being overweight or obese (OWB, 6.6% to 16.5%) along with urbanization (27.5% to 37.1%). Single-child families had higher levels of parental education, household income and urban residence than families with ≥ two children (p<0.05). Compared to the children with siblings, single children were more likely to be OWB; the association became stronger over time (OR=4.5 (1.7-12.4) in 2011 and 1.7 (1.0-2.8) in 2000). Also, single children had less recreational screen time, but similar physical activity levels; however single urban children were more likely to have excess total energy intake (OR=5.70 (1.58-20.60)) than those with siblings. Being single-child is about four times more likely to be overweight/obesity than those having siblings, and the association became stronger over time in China. China's one-child policy might have contributed to its rising childhood obesity rates. Obesity intervention programs may need to account for the influence of the one-child policy in China.

Language use in the context of double minority: the case of Japanese–Catalan/Spanish families in Catalonia

ABSTRACTThis study explores language use in Japanese–Catalan/Spanish families in Catalonia with a special attention to Japanese. In a community such as Catalonia wherein two languages of different status are in conflict within its own territory, the ability of families to maintain a socially ‘weaker’ language and transmit yet another language that does not have an official status within the community raises an important question: how do these cross-linguistic families cope with a ‘double minority context’ in terms of organising their language use within the family? Analysing the data collected through a questionnaire survey conducted with 29 Japanese–Catalan/Spanish-speaking families living in Catalonia revealed that the parents in said families adopted a mostly monolingual use of Spanish; however, this practice does not affect the families’ Catalan and Japanese use. Not establishing a single common language for the family may be one of the strategies to combat the threat to minority languages. In general, especially for the survey participants, Catalan and Japanese remain significantly utilised. Our study also found that sibling existence can influence language-use patterns between parent and child(ren), with monolingual practices tending to be used in single-child families.

Survey on the Fertility Intentions of 1047 College Students

This study conducted a questionnaire survey about the fertility intentions of college students in Nanjing from June to December 2015. According to the collection of 1047 questionnaires, the fertility intentions and the relative influencing factors were explored by descriptive analysis. The results indicated that there might be a baby boom in the coming 7-10 years under the universal two-child policy. From the beginning of 1970s, China implemented the one-child policy for slowing the population growth rate. More than 40 years passed since then, the trend of excessive population growth has been eased. According to the sixth census report, the total fertility rate of China has been reduced to 1.18[1]. However the demographic Structure problem has been appearing gradually while the fertility rate is sharply dropped. It brings the poser of the unbalanced gender population ratio, the aging of population,[2] etc. For replying the situation, the government adapted the policy to two-child fertility policy for couples where either the husband or the wife is from a single-child family in the end of year 2014 and more over the universal two-child policy in the end of 2015. Nevertheless, according to data released by the national health and family planning commission, there were less than 1 million pairs apply for rebirth which was far below expected 2 million predicted[3-4]. In order to understand the possible trend of the population composition in Jiangsu province precisely, we conducted the survey on the fertility intentions of college students in Nanjing.

Investigation on Internet addiction disorder in adolescents in Anhui, People's Republic of China.

Background and aimThe purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics and prevalence of Internet addiction (IA) in adolescents so as to provide a scientific basis for the communities, schools, and families.MethodsWe conducted a survey by randomized cluster sampling on 5,249 students, grades ranging from 7 to 12, in Anhui province, People’s Republic of China. The questionnaire consisted of general information and IA test. Chi-square test was used to compare the status of IA disorder (IAD).ResultsIn our results, the overall detection rate of IAD and non-IAD in students was 8.7% (459/5,249) and 76.2% (4,000/5,249), respectively. The detection rate of IAD in males (12.3%) was higher than females (4.9%). The detection rate of IAD was statistically different between students from rural (8.2%) and urban (9.3%) areas, among students from different grades, between students from only-child families (9.5%) and non-only-child families (8.1%), and among students from different family types.ConclusionPrevalence of IA is high among Chinese adolescents. IAD has more effect on male students, single-child families, single-parent families, and higher grade students. We should take more care of male students, only-child students, and students living with their fathers, and related education should be strengthen for susceptible subjects of IDA.

Comparison of Parenting Style in Single Child and Multiple Children Families

Comparison of Parenting Style in Single Child and Multiple Children Families

The effects of familism on intended care arrangements in the process of preparing for future care among one-child parents in urban China

ABSTRACTGuided by Sörensen and Pinquart's model of preparation for future care, this study investigated the relationship between familism and intended care arrangements. Ordinal logistic regression was performed on a sample of 516 urban Chinese one-child parents aged 45–65 with an equal gender ratio to examine the associations between five care expectations, familism (filial obligation and child gender) and future care planning constructs (awareness, information gathering and avoidance). Awareness and information gathering were positively associated with service-focused care arrangements. Avoidant planners were more inclined to rely on adult children. Participants with a stronger filial obligation had greater expectations for ageing at home with the aid of a spouse, siblings or helper. Child gender was not significantly associated with intended care arrangements. The model of preparation for future care was useful when predicting service-focused care arrangements. Familism was a powerful predictor of family-focused care arrangements. Females were more likely to rely on children regardless of child gender but less likely to rely on spouses and siblings. The study enriches researchers' understanding of urban Chinese older adults' intended care arrangements in the context of fading familism and single-child families.

NOVEL MANAH BUNGAH LENYAH DI TOYOBUNGKAH: GURU YANG BERDAMAI DENGAN ADAT

THE NOVEL MANAH BUNGAH LENYAH DI TOYOBUNGKAH: A TEACHER WHO WANTS TO BE AT PEACE WITH TRADITIONAL CUSTOMS Violence to the teachers is not only a national issue, but also has led to the criminal, even to the politicization of teachers. That fact can also be traced in the novel of Bali Modern Literature (BML/SBM) entitled Manah Bungah Lenyah in Toyobungkah 'Love is blossom, Wilt in Toyobungkah' (2002) by I Nyoman Manda. Here, the figures is depicted as a teacher of the only child of the family, both man and woman faces equal severity in the shackles of customs, traditions, and religion. Severity was associated with the process of inheritance that not only physical (scale) but also the spirit (noetic). In a dilemma that, with the status as teachers of single child families make peace with the customary shackles in order to save their respective families. Teachers succumb to glorify customary for the sake of harmonization. It is also confirmed that the fortress of Balinese culture in family hands were tied through the Bali banjar system in the territory of the indigenous villages. Families with a child much less work as teachers, are expected to be the pillar that is able to selectively filter out the various influences that want to destroy. Teacher is intended to strengthen the ranks into without shut out associated with changes (dynamics) society. Bali human identity should be maintained in accordance with the consistent discourse of Bali.Key word: teachers, Modern Bali Literature, customs AbstrakKekerasan terhadap guru bukan saja menjadi isu nasional, melainkan juga telah mengarah pada kriminalisasi, bahkan sampai pada politisasi guru. Kenyataan itu juga dapat ditelusuri dalam novel Sastra Bali Modern (SBM) berjudulManah Bungah Lenyah di Toyobungkah ‘Cinta Mekar, Layu di Toyobungkah’ (2002) karya I Nyoman Manda. Di sini, digambarkan tokoh guru dari keluarga berstatus anak tunggal baik laki-laki maupun perempuan sama peliknya dalam menghadapi belenggu adat, tradisi, dan agama. Kepelikan itu terkait dengan proses pewarisan yang tidak hanya bersifat fisik (sekala) tetapi juga spirit (niskala). Dalam posisi dilematis itulah, tokoh guru dari keluarga berstatus anak tunggal memilih berdamai dengan belenggu adat demi menyelamatkan keluarga masing-masing. Guru mengalah untuk memuliakan adat demi harmonisasi. Hal ini juga mengonfirmasi bahwa benteng kebudayaan Bali berada di tangan keluarga Bali yang diikat melalui sistem banjar di wilayah teritorial desa adat. Keluarga dengan anak tunggal lebih-lebih berprofesi sebagai guru, diharapkan menjadi pilar penyangga yang mampu menyaring secara selektif aneka pengaruh yang hendak menghancurkan. Guru diniatkan untuk memperkuat barisan ke dalam tanpa menutup diri keluar terkait dengan perubahan (dinamika) masyarakatnya. Jati diri manusia Bali harus tetap dijaga sesuai dengan wacana Ajeg Bali.Kata Kunci: guru, sastra bali modern, adat

Hungarian Population Discourses in the Twentieth Century: The Problem of Declining Birth Rates

Falling birth rates had already been recorded as early as the late-eighteenth century in south-western Hungary in the Ormánság. Population loss from low birth rate remained one of the main topics writers and sociologists focused on in the twentieth century. The issue of Hungarian population decline was highlighted among the social ills in the interwar period, which was one of several subjects that divided intellectuals into ‘populists’ and ‘urbanites’. Following the impact of the low birth rate figures in the 1960s, the populists’ views of the 1930s resurfaced in public discourse in the 1960s and 1970s and up to the present day. The concern about the increasing trend of single-child families in rural settlements as well as in urban areas appeared in the various works of Hungarian writers and journalists throughout the previous century. The present paper intends to focus on the intellectual background to the public debates on the population issue, outlining the accounts of the interwar ‘village explorers’ briefly, and the way they are related to the pre-Second World War populist movement. Finally the reappearance of the debates between populists and non-populists of the 1970s is discussed, a debate that is still continuing.

Comparison of Single Child Family Adolescents and Adolescents with Number of Siblings

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; The aim of the present study was to ascertain the difference between adolescents belonging to only child family and adolescents belonging to number of siblings. To main objectives of the study were to examine that the difference between self esteem, quality of life and personality type of adolescents belonging to only child family and the association between the self esteem, quality of life and personality type of adolescents belonging to only child family. Population of the present study comprised of hundred (N=100) participants. The sample included fifty (n=50) (only child) adolescent who is the only child of their biological parents and fifty (n=50) adolescents having number of siblings studying in different schools, colleges and universities of Abbottabad, Mansehra, and Haripur. Urdu version of “Riffai Self esteem inventory”, “World health organization quality of life questionnaire” and Eysenck personality questionnaires (2007) were used for data collection. t-test was used to analyze the data. Finding showed that that there is a difference between the scores of participants who were the single child of their parents and subject belonging to number of children family.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

The Association Between the Postnatal Environment and Behavioral Sexual Dimorphism in Pre-school Children in Single-Child Families in Qingdao, China

Previous studies have shown that prenatal exposure to chemical or non-chemical endocrine disruptors can alter children’s sexually dimorphic behavior. To date, no study has examined the possible influence of postnatal-environmental factors on the gender-specific play behavior of childhood. We hypothesized that the postnatal environment in early childhood might also influence the sexual dimorphism of the brain. Parents or guardians of pre-school children completed questionnaires about their postnatal living environment. The Pre-School Activities Inventory (PSAI) was used to measure sexually dimorphic play behavior. Sex-stratified analyses revealed that the generosity (&beta; = 0.085, p &lt; 0.05) and education (&beta; = 0.142, p &lt; 0.01) of fathers predicted higher feminine scores in girls and lower feminine (&beta; = -0.144, p &lt; 0.001) or higher masculine scores (&beta; = 0.129, p &lt; 0.01) in boys. Indices of chemical exposure (i.e., indoor decoration, biomass pollution, hand cleanliness, and passive smoking) had an association with PSAI scores in both girls and boys. Patterns of sensory processing, including tactile and proprioceptive senses scores and sensory underresponsivity scores, also were associated with PSAI scores. An association of PSAI scores with taking drugs during pregnancy and gestational nutrition was evident only in boys. Our results indicate that a social environment of parental guidance and an indoor environment of exposure to chemical are associated with behavioral sexual dimorphism. Children’s patterns of sensory processing also contributed to behavioral sexual dimorphism. Information about the gestational environment also should be considered when studying the development of sexual dimorphism in boys.

Features and risk factors of nonfatal injury among the rural children: a survey of seven schools in a mountain area in Southwest China.

Objective We aimed to investigate the patterns and risk factors of nonfatal injuries among rural mountain-area children in southwest China.MethodsA stratified sampling method was used to recruit rural children aged 8 to 17 years (mainly 9–14 years) from 7 schools. Self-reported injuries during the past 12 months and relevant concerns were collected from June to December 2012 by using a structured questionnaire in a class interview.ResultsThe mean age of the 2,854 children was 12.2±1.5 years. The probability of annual injury was 16.7% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 15.3–18.1%), with slightly higher injury risk for boys than girls (17.7% vs. 16.0%; P>0.05). The top 3 causes of injuries were falls (37.3%), animal-related incidents (20.6%), and burns (14.9%). The main injury risk factors included being involved in a violent episode (odds ratio [OR] 1.34, 95% CI 1.08–1.66, P = 0.007), maltreatment by parents or guardians (1.42, 1.17–1.72, P<0.001), and being from a single-child family (1.30, 1.10–1.66, P = 0.039). Older age was a protective factor (0.81, 0.76–0.87, P<0.001).ConclusionsThe incidence of nonfatal injury among rural children was high, and falls were the leading cause. Younger children and boys from poor-care and poor-living environments were at increased risk of injury, which requires urgent attention. Injury prevention programs targeting these issues are needed in this mountain area and similar rural regions of China.

О функциях и роли агентства по труду в социальной защите и управлении персоналом в ФРГ (на примере переселенцев)

The paper considers functions of the Labor Agency (Agency), which is an important mechanism for workforce management processes and procedures in the context of socially-oriented German economy. Agency activities are analyzed and how it practically implements social welfare principles (as exemplified by immigrants from CSI, Asian and African countries). The author operates based on his research and personal experience, gained while working in various German universities and companies. Special attention is given to how the Agency’s Center of Employment provide unemployed with unemployment relief and workplaces. Practical measures conducive to unemployment reduction are highlighted. It is emphasized that while Germany has powerful system of social welfare and sufficient unemployment reliefs, payroll taxes are also relatively high. Consequently, many immigrants try their hard to avoid working and prefer to live on the dole. Along with that the author reveals the reasons and ways through which German state officials discriminate immigrants thus favoring natives of Germany.&#x0D; Nevertheless, given one million vacancies to be filled throughout the country, many Germans reject the German tax system, emigrate and work successfully abroad (e.g., 65% of doctors in Switzerland are expatriate Germans). The paper specially emphasizes, that the majority of immigrants to Germany are poorly educated, poorly civilized Asians and Africans with extra families, while among native Germans single-child families prevail and highly qualified specialists do prevail among emigrants. Such social discrepancy arose discontent among German burghers which results in annual neo-Nazi anti-German marches in towns and villages. In conclusion the author provides recommendations for immigrants and Russians, willing to work in German, on how to integrate in the German society and adapt to labor market conditions of Germany.

Single-Child Families in India: Levels, Trends and Determinants

This paper discusses a relatively new but an emerging demographic phenomenon of single-child families in India. This paper examines the levels, trends and determinants of single-child families using the data from three rounds of National Family Health Surveys (NFHS) conducted in 1992–1993, 1998–1999 and 2005–2006. The paper analyses women who have completed their reproductive life to understand the characteristics of single-child families. The results show that the proportion of single-child families is higher among the urban, educated and professionally employed women. Among the determinants, age at marriage and first birth, place of residence, economic and education status were significantly associated with single-child families.

Relation between the loneliness levels and cognitive deviation of medical students and its influ-encing factors

Objective To examine the interrelation between the cognitive deviation and loneli-ness levels of medical students and its influencing factors. Methods Totally 220 medical students in grade two of one medical school were selected by method of cluster random sampling. The data of the research were obtained through cognitive bias questionnaire （CBQ） and emotional-social loneliness questionnaire. Interrelation between the cognitive deviation type and condition of emotional-social lone-liness of medical students were analyzed by Pearson product-moment correlation two-tailed test. Multi-ple stepwise regression analysis was conducted by taking score of emotional-social loneliness as de-pendent variable and score of CBQ as independent variable. Differences in cognitive deviation and loneliness levels between rural and urban students as well as between students from single child family and students from non single child family were analyzed by independent-sample t test. Results Neg-ative cognitive deviation of depression-distortion type was positively correlated with medical students’ emotional isolation （r=0.161, P=0.021）,social isolation （r=0.266,P=0.000）, emotional loneliness （r=0.340, P=0.000） and social loneliness （r=0.385, P=0.000）. The regression equation was： score of emotional-social loneliness=27.165＋1.908 （depression-distortion）＋0.836 （depression-non distortion）.Students from non single child family had higher scores than students from single child family in the perspectives of depression-distortion”（P=0.017）, social isolation（P=0.001）, emotional loneliness（P=0.016）, social loneliness（P=0.000）. Rural students had higher scores in the above four perspectives than urban students（P〈0.05）. Conclusions Negative cognitive deviation levels of medical students is positively correlated with emotion and social isolation conditions and loneliness experiences. Regres-sion analysis shows that unhealthy cognitive disposition and thinking mode probably are one of the im-portant reasons leading to medical students’ stress disorder. Students from single child family and rural area may experience social loneliness more deeply and students from single child family have obvious cognitive deviation. Key words: Cognitive deviation; Loneliness; Correlation analysis

Single Parent Families: Change In Leisure Consumption

Single-parent families face many problems in their daily lives. These problems include parenting, child care, chores, drop in the level of income, social life, and also the use of time. As a result of these problems, leisure consumption, which is one of the indicators of quality of life, can be changed. The purpose of this study is to explore the changes in leisure consumption in single-parent families. Participants of this study consisted of single-parent employees at the Hacettepe University in Ankara, Turkey (n=119). The families in which the parent is female (76.5%) made up a larger portion of the study than the families in which the parent is male (23.5%). The ages of the participants ranged from 25-65 years (M=40.91 years, SD=9.75). More than half had college degree (50.4%) and 27.7% had an education level that consisted of secondary school or less. The overall monthly income level was between 2001 TL-3000 TL (41.2%) and single-child families (64.7%) were prominent. According the results, single-parent families experienced a decrease in consumption in activities such as going to the cinema, theatre, and concerst (62.2%), participating in ticketed sporting events (52.9%), and eating out (47.9%) because of economic reasons.

Screening cluster A and cluster B personality disorders in Chinese high school students

BackgroundPersonality disorders (PDs) during adolescence may, in addition to increasing risk for violent behaviors and suicide, also increase risk for elevated PD traits in adulthood. The aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of Cluster A and Cluster B PD traits and their relationships to demographic variables in Chinese high school students.MethodsA cohort of 3,552 students from eight high schools completed the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4+ (PDQ-4+) and MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status-youth version (SSSy) questionnaires.ResultsBoys scored higher than girls on the paranoid, schizotypal, antisocial, and narcissistic PDs. Freshmen and sophomores scored higher than juniors on schizoid, borderline, and antisocial PDs. Children in single-child families scored higher than nonsingletons on the paranoid and antisocial PDs. Students from single-parent households scored higher than students from double-parent households on the schizotypal and antisocial PDs, and students with remarried parents scored higher than students from double-parent households on the borderline and antisocial PDs. Students who had low perception of social status in the society ladder scored higher than those with a high perceived status on the schizoid and borderline PDs, but scored lower on the histrionic PD; students with a low subjective social status in the school community ladder scored higher scores than those with a high perceived status on the paranoid, schizoid, borderline, and antisocial PDs, but scored lower on the histrionic PD.ConclusionsGender, grade, family structure, and subjective social status may affect the development of PDs. Longitudinal studies and studies of the full scope of PDs are needed to fully elucidate the impact of demographic variables on PD prevalence rates in adolescence and adulthood.

Changes in Mental Health of Members of the Chinese Army (1990~2007): A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis

Many studies have been conducted to measure the mental health status of members of the Chinese Army. However, empirical research on the topic has yielded few consistent results. Some studies have found that Chinese Army members have poor mental health status, and others provide evidence that soldiers' mental health is positive. The main issue we addressed in this study was the development of the mental health of Chinese Army members over the past two decades. This time period is significant because it has been a relatively peaceful time for China, and soldiers during this period are increasingly products of the single-child family policies. Are there significant differences on mental health between soldiers from single-child families and multiple-child families? We also explored differences in the mental health of soldiers from urban and rural areas and soldiers with different levels of education. Typically, traditional meta-analysis methods are used to examine the effect size of homogenous studies on a specific topic. But there are typically large variances in effect sizes in studies published across a number of years, an issue which has not been ideally resolved in the field of psychology. The cross-temporal meta-analysis method used in this study was developed by Twenge and introduced into China by Xin. This method was applied to examine the changing process of certain psychological factors, such as mental health, coping style, learning anxiety, and self-esteem. Cross-temporal meta-analysis was applied to examine the changes in mental health of members of the Chinese Army from 1990 to 2007. Ninety-four published studies of mental health of members of the Chinese Army (N = 108,736) were included. In these studies, the Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90) was used to assess the mental health of the soldiers. The means and SDs of nine dimensions of SCL-90 during 18 years were gathered and compared. Results and conclusions showed that: (1) Mental health of members of the Chinese Army steadily improved between 1990 and 2007; (2) During those 18 years, the Interpersonal Sensitivity factor of SCL-90 of Chinese Army members changed most significantly, and the least significantly changed factor was Somatization; (3) Chinese Army members showed evidence of fewest problems on the Photic Anxiety factor, in contrast to the consistent problems indicated by scores on the Obsessive-Compulsive and Interpersonal Sensitivity scales; (4) Chinese Army members from single-child families (N = 1,944) showed significant lower evidence of positive mental health than soldiers from multiple child families (N = 2,649); (5) The mental health of soldiers from non-agricultural backgrounds (N = 7,808) was less positive than that of soldiers from agricultural household (N = 11,459); (6) Chinese Army members with senior high school education level (N = 10,189) had less positive mental health than those with junior high school (N = 8,407) or university education (N = 863).

2053 – Single child families and conflict of families

Due to the financial crisis during the war between Iran and Iraq, the growth rate of population in Iran decreased from 3.6% to 1.4% in a 20 year period while the age of marriage tended to rise to 25. Most young people preferred to be single and spend their energy on academic studies to have a stable life. For the couples, it became the rule to have only one child so that the parents can support him/her financially or emotionally. There were some benefits for families and society such as the reduction of the number students in the schools and more freedom for wome to work out of the horse. After twenty years, the age mean of population is increasing toward 40 and there is a great generation gap between the elderly and the youth. On the other hand, most of the children are coming up a new challenge. They suffer from loneliness at home and from lack of verbal communication with siblings. The researches show that the tendency of children to participate in social and group activities has declined to the extent that social presence of children in streets has fallen to one-third. Peer - to- peer relationship in now very limited for children as they must be at home to be supervised by parents. This new life style has had a direct effect on children's personality and academic achievements.