Simultaneous High-speed Imaging Research Articles

Dual-camera high-speed imaging of the ignition modes of ethanol, methanol and n-hexane in a shock tube

Shock tubes are used as homogeneous batch reactors to measure ignition delay times, reaction rate coefficients and species time-histories of a variety of chemical systems. Any non-ideality or inhomogeneity in the shock tube experiment would affect the quality and usefulness of measured data. Experimental and computational efforts have previously been carried out to characterize the regimes of ideal operation of shock tubes. High-speed imaging has proven to be a highly useful tool to assess ignition homogeneity. In this work, a dual-camera setup has been used with an optical end-section in a circular shock tube to obtain simultaneous high-speed images from the shock tube endwall and sidewall, thus providing visualization of the ignition phenomenon in three dimensions. Two case studies are presented herein to demonstrate the quality of data and insights that are obtained using this diagnostic technique to study the ignition modes of different fuels. The first is a comparison of the ignition of two alternative fuels, methanol and ethanol, and the second is a study of the ignition dependence on the fuel concentration of a representative paraffinic fuel, n-hexane. The unique dual-camera imaging diagnostic enabled deeper insights into the ignition homogeneity, with all fuels exhibiting localized ignition at low temperatures. Methanol showed a higher propensity than ethanol to ignite far from the endwall, and the high concentration of n-hexane led to inhomogeneous ignition.

Characterization of the solvent specific evaporation from a fluoropolymer surface roughened by layered double oxide (LDO) particles

Abstract Solid/ liquid interaction strongly depends, among other things, on the chemical and physical properties of fluids, therefore, there are unexploited analytical possibilities in investigating the surface wetting and evaporation behavior. Strongly hydrophobic rough surface thin films were prepared by spray-coating a fluoropolymer film with incorporated layered double oxide (LDO) microparticles. We studied the evaporation of ethanol–water mixtures from the low energy (8.4 ± 2.6 mJ/m2) composite surfaces by simultaneous high-speed visible imaging, infrared imaging and weight loss monitoring. The wetting behavior changed from Cassie's wetting mode (pure water) to Wenzel's (pure ethanol) as a function of solvent composition. The vaporization process could be divided into three stages described by constant evaporate rates and the heat transfer coefficient between the studied layer and water is KT = 1768 W/(m2K). We have found strong correlations between parameters of the measured evaporation profiles and certain physical properties of the solvents. It is possible to estimate the viscosity, the boiling point, or the surface tension of a studied liquid merely from the total evaporation time. This novel solvent identification method can serve as a new application field for such low energy hybrid surfaces.

Pressure gradient tailoring effects on the mechanisms of bluff-body flame extinction

The mechanisms of flame blowout under pressure gradient effects are explored for a bluff-body stabilized flame. The blowout process is induced through equivalence ratio reduction from a lean stabilized flame to complete blowout. Simultaneous high-speed particle image velocimetry (PIV) and C2*/CH* chemiluminescence imaging diagnostics are used to obtain the instantaneous flame structure, vorticity field, equivalence ratio, and local strain rate during the extinction process. The goal is to elucidate the effect of flame-generated vorticity on lean flame extinction. Three test-sections configured as a nozzle, a rectangular duct, and a diffuser, are used to alter the downstream pressure gradient yielding high, nominal, and low magnitudes of flame-generated baroclinic torque. For all three configurations, the flame brush narrows and the shear layer vorticity expands in the transverse direction resulting in flame-shear interactions and extinction. The flame-shear layer interaction increases the strain rate along the flame; however, the strong flame-generated vorticity for the nozzle case delayed the strain rate increase by keeping the flame away from the shear layer the longest. The sharp increase in the Karlovitz number above unity caused by the sudden increase in the strain rate corresponds to the time of flame brush contraction and shear layer width expansion. It is shown that the downstream pressure gradient can either augment or attenuate the time required for the Karlovitz number to reach a critical value of unity, which is associated with local extinctions along the flame. In all of the test-section configurations, the flame-generated vorticity has a weak influence on the Bénard von Kármán (BVK) instability mode and its harmonics. The Strouhal number during blow-out remained relatively constant in all of the cases showing greater sensitivity to the shear layer length than to the BVK frequency.

High-speed film-thickness measurements between a collapsing cavitation bubble and a solid surface with total internal reflection shadowmetry

The time evolution of the liquid-film thickness of a single cavitation bubble in water collapsing onto a solid surface is measured. To this end, total internal reflection (TIR) shadowmetry is developed, a technique based on TIR and the imaging of shadows of an optical structure on a polished glass surface. The measurements are performed at frame rates up to 480 kHz. Simultaneous high-speed imaging of the bubble shape at up to 89 kHz allows relating the evolution of the film thickness to the bubble dynamics. With a typical maximum bubble radius of 410 µm, we varied the nondimensional stand-off distance γ from 0.47 to 1.07. We find that during the first collapse phase, the bubble does not come in direct contact with the solid surface. Instead, when the bubble collapses, the jet impacts on a liquid film that always resides between the bubble and solid. At jet impact, it is 5–40 µm thick, depending on γ. Also, during rebound, at any given point in time, most or all of the then overall toroidal bubble is not in contact with the solid surface.

Investigation of inversed-delta injection rate shaping diesel spray flame structure and combustion characteristics towards thermal efficiency improvement

Reduction of the late combustion is of interest for further diesel engine thermal efficiency improvement. In this work, “inversed-delta” (i.e., progressive reduction of injection rate during injection period) and conventional “rectangle”-injected diesel spray flames are investigated from simultaneous high-speed imaging and in-cylinder pressure trace in a constant volume combustion chamber CVCC at modern diesel engine conditions utilizing a novel injection rate shaping TAIZAC – TAndem Injectors Zapping ACtivation injector. Optically thinner spray tip rich mixture, shorter spray tip penetration and more relatively even UV emissions distributions are noticed in 175 MPa inversed-delta injections compared to than that of 175 MPa rectangle injection profiles, probably due to much even fuel-gas mixture distribution owing to following spray velocity reduction. However, in near-zero end-of-injection EOI pressure reduction condition as in 135 MPa inversed-delta injection profile, optically thicker and broader spray mixture accompanied with intense UV emissions and long soot residence are observed, suggesting poor atomization, mixing and soot oxidation processes. Based on pressure derived apparent heat release rate AHRR, inversed-delta injection exhibits slightly faster combustion than that of rectangle injection in fixed injection duration cases. However, for constant initial injection pressure comparison cases, combustion duration is faster in rectangle injection profiles. In similar initial injection pressure cases, inversed-delta injection combustion exhibits a distinct “shoulder”-like shape, where its AHRR departs from that of rectangle injection, results in lower peak pressure but longer combustion duration. Initial similarity and departing timing of AHRR shoulder are highly identical to that of the spray tip penetration, suggesting that the inversed-delta AHRR progress is restrained from the shoulder formation timing, possibly due to smaller volumetric reactive zone at the spray periphery.

Simultaneous high-speed imaging of temperature, heat-release rate, and multi-species concentrations in turbulent jet flames.

We report the high-speed imaging of multi-species and multi-parameter combustion diagnostics for turbulent non-premixed jet flames using a three-legged burst-mode laser system. Simultaneous OH/CH2O planar laser-induced fluorescence and Rayleigh-scattering imaging measurements at a 10-kHz rate are obtained. OH and CH2O concentrations, flame temperatures, and heat-release rates are simultaneously acquired in two-dimensions at 10 kHz.

Kinematics of local entrainment and detrainment in a turbulent jet

In this paper we investigate the continuous, local exchange of fluid elements as they are entrained and detrained across the turbulent/non-turbulent interface (TNTI) in a high Reynolds number axisymmetric jet. To elucidate characteristic kinematic features of local entrainment and detrainment processes, simultaneous high-speed particle image velocimetry and planar laser-induced fluorescence measurements were undertaken. Using an interface-tracking technique, we evaluate and analyse the conditional dependence of local entrainment velocity in a frame of reference moving with the TNTI in terms of the interface geometry and the local flow field. We find that the local entrainment velocity is intermittent with a characteristic length scale of the order of the Taylor micro-scale and that the contribution to the net entrainment rate arises from the imbalance between local entrainment and detrainment rates that occurs with a ratio of two parts of entrainment to one part detrainment. On average, an increase in local entrainment is correlated with excursions of the TNTI towards jet centreline into regions of higher streamwise momentum, convex surface curvature facing the turbulent side of the jet and along the leading edges of the interface. In contrast, detrainment is correlated with excursions of the TNTI away from the jet centreline into regions of lower streamwise momentum, concave surface curvature and along the trailing edge. We find that strong entrainment is characterised by a local counterflow velocity field in the frame of reference moving with the TNTI which enhances the transport of rotational and irrotational fluid elements. On the other hand, detrainment is characterised by locally uniform flow fields with the local fluid velocity on either side of the TNTI advecting in the same direction. These local flow patterns and the strength of entrainment or detrainment rates are also observed to be strongly influenced by the presence and relative strength of vortical structures which are of the order of the Taylor micro-scale that populate the turbulent region along the jet boundary.

The Relationship between In-Cylinder Flow-Field near Spark Plug Areas, the Spark Behavior, and the Combustion Performance inside an Optical S.I. Engine

The stringent regulations that were placed on gasoline vehicles demand significant improvement of the powertrain unit, not only to become cleaner but also more efficient. Therefore, there is a strong need to understand the complex in-cylinder processes that will have a direct effect on the combustion quality. This study applied multiple high-speed optical imaging to investigate the interaction between the in-cylinder flow, the spark, the flame, and combustion performance. These individual elements have been studied closely in the literature but the combined effect is not well understood. Simultaneous imaging of in-cylinder flow and flame tomography using high-speed Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), as well as simultaneous high-speed spark imaging, were applied to port-injected optical gasoline imaging. The captured images were processed using in-house MATLAB algorithms and the deduced data shows a trend that higher in-cylinder flow velocity near the spark will increase the stretch distance of the spark and decrease the ignition delay. However, these do not have much effect on the combustion duration, and it is the flow-field in the entire area surrounding the flame development that will influence how fast the combustion and flame growth will occur.

Mechanisms of flame extinction and lean blowout of bluff body stabilized flames

Lean flame blowout is investigated experimentally within a high-speed combustor to analyze the temporal extinction dynamics of turbulent premixed bluff body stabilized flames. The lean blowout process is induced through fuel flow reduction and captured temporally using simultaneous high-speed particle imaging velocimetry (PIV) and CH* chemiluminescence. The evolution of the flame structure, flow field, and the resulting flame strain rate are analyzed throughout extinction to distinguish the physical mechanisms of blowout. The flame–vortex dynamics are found to be the main driving mechanism of flame extinction; namely, a reduction of the flame-generated vorticity coupled with an increase in the downstream shear layer vorticity. The vorticity dynamics are linked to hydrodynamic instabilities that vary as a function of the decreasing equivalence ratio. A frequency analysis is performed to characterize the dynamic changes of the hydrodynamic instability modes during flame extinction. Various bluff body inflow velocity regimes are investigated to further characterize the extinction instability modes. Both equivalence ratio and flow-driven instabilities are captured through a universal definition of the Strouhal number for the reacting bluff body flow. Finally, a Karlovitz number-based criterion is developed to consistently predict the onset of global extinction for the different inflow velocity regimes.

Compression Strength Mechanisms of Low-Density Fibrous Materials.

In this work we challenge some earlier theoretical ideas on the strength of lightweight fiber materials by analyzing an extensive set of foam-formed fiber networks. The experimental samples included various different material densities and different types of natural and regenerated cellulose fibers. Characterization of the samples was performed by macroscopic mechanical testing, supported by simultaneous high-speed imaging of local deformations inside a fiber network. The imaging showed extremely heterogeneous deformation behavior inside a sample, with both rapidly proceeding deformation fronts and comparatively still regions. Moreover, image correlation analysis revealed frequent local fiber dislocations throughout the compression cycle, not only for low or moderate compressive strains. A new buckling theory including a statistical distribution of free-span lengths is proposed and tested against the experimental data. The theory predicts universal ratios between stresses at different compression levels for low-density random fiber networks. The mean ratio of stresses at 50% and 10% compression levels measured over 57 different trial points, 5.42 ± 0.43, agrees very well with the theoretical value of 5.374. Moreover, the model predicts well the effect of material density, and can be used in developing the properties of lightweight materials in novel applications.

High-speed imaging of wave modes in an RDC

Various operating modes have been observed in the rotating detonation combustor (RDC) studied here, as well as by others. These modes can be generally categorized into two groups: one or more co-rotating waves and counter-rotating waves. The combustor is able to stabilize both types of operation, however the stabilization mechanism remains unclear. In order to better understand these cases, these operational modes are investigated with high-speed pressure transducers installed in the combustor annulus combined with simultaneous high-speed video imaging of the natural luminosity of the detonation wave from the aft end of the RDC. These results confirm the operation in both the steady single wave mode as well as the counter-rotating waves mode. The presence of this mode further demonstrates the complex dynamics inherent in the stabilization of the detonation wave. As each wave propagates, they initially begin to weaken followed by re-strengthening after collision which serves to stabilize the mode. Differences in the velocities of the waves was also observed to result in a beating phenomenon expressed as an amplitude modulation of the pressure traces. High-speed video imaging of the high-temperature emission from H2O in the RDC annulus was used in conjunction with the pressure traces for a range of flow rates and equivalence ratios. Processing of the images into the wave frame of reference allowed for the identification of the average luminosity profile, characterized by a steep increase in natural luminosity near the wave front, followed by a trailing tail extending approximately half the annulus perimeter.

Pressure-gradient tailoring effects on the turbulent flame-vortex dynamics of bluff-body premixed flames

This paper explores the effects of pressure-gradient tailoring on the turbulent flame and vorticity generation mechanisms of premixed flames. A turbulent premixed flame stabilized by a bluff-body in a high-speed combustor is used for the investigation. The combustor pressure gradient is altered using a variable-geometry test section. The turbulent flame-flow field is measured and characterized using simultaneous high-speed particle imaging velocimetry (PIV) and CH* chemiluminescence. A Lagrangian tracking technique is applied to analyze the details of the flame-vortex interactions from the experimental data. Lagrangian fluid elements are tracked as they evolve across the flame. The vorticity mechanisms are decomposed along the Lagrangian trajectories to determine their relative balance under various pressure gradient conditions. It is demonstrated that the induced pressure-gradient affects the relative magnitudes of combustion-generated dilatation and baroclinic torque, as well as the vortex stretching. An increase in the magnitudes of the vorticity mechanisms is shown with the largest gain in baroclinicity for the augmented pressure gradient relative to the attenuated.

Wavelet analysis techniques in cavitating flows.

Cavitating and bubbly flows involve a host of physical phenomena and processes ranging from nucleation, surface and interfacial effects, mass transfer via diffusion and phase change to macroscopic flow physics involving bubble dynamics, turbulent flow interactions and two-phase compressible effects. The complex physics that result from these phenomena and their interactions make for flows that are difficult to investigate and analyse. From an experimental perspective, evolving sensing technology and data processing provide opportunities for gaining new insight and understanding of these complex flows, and the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) is a powerful tool to aid in their elucidation. Five case studies are presented involving many of these phenomena in which the CWT was key to data analysis and interpretation. A diverse set of experiments are presented involving a range of physical and temporal scales and experimental techniques. Bubble turbulent break-up is investigated using hydroacoustics, bubble dynamics and high-speed imaging; microbubbles are sized using light scattering and ultrasonic sensing, and large-scale coherent shedding driven by various mechanisms are analysed using simultaneous high-speed imaging and physical measurement techniques. The experimental set-up, aspect of cavitation being addressed, how the wavelets were applied, their advantages over other techniques and key findings are presented for each case study.This paper is part of the theme issue 'Redundancy rules: the continuous wavelet transform comes of age'.

Autoignition-controlled flame initiation and flame stabilization in a reacting jet in crossflow

This paper describes an analysis of the mechanisms of autoignition-controlled flame initiation and flame stabilization in a nonpremixed jet in crossflows, using simultaneous high-speed (10 kHz) tomographic particle image velocimetry, OH-PLIF and line-of-sight flame emissions. Measurements are conducted on a turbulent, transverse, reacting propane jet issued into a crossflow generated by combustion of natural gas at an equivalence ratio of 0.4 with the crossflow velocity of 10 m/s, the crossflow temperature of 1350 K and the jet momentum flux ratio of 41. While several prior studies have analyzed the lifted character of the flame in similar configurations, we show that several dynamic processes precede the leading edge of the lifted diffusion flame, including formation and evolution of “autoignition kernels”, “flame kernels” and “flame fragments”. “Autoignition kernels”, i.e., discrete compact reaction zones with the peak hydroxyl (OH) fluorescence intensity below that of the diffusion flame, initiate preferably at bulges along the jet periphery where the strain rates and the scalar dissipation rates are lower. The autoignition kernel grows in both size and the OH-fluorescence intensity as it convects downstream. An autoignition kernel transitions into a propagating flame kernel, which quickly gets distorted and elongated in the direction of the principal expansion strain rate to form a flame fragment. Neighboring flame fragments merge with each other and with the downstream diffusion flame via edge-flame propagation. Merging of upstream flame fragments with the downstream diffusion flame results in an upstream advancement of the diffusion-flame front. The diffusion flame front is intrinsically unsteady because of the rather random formation and evolution of autoignition kernels, flame kernels and flame fragments, presumably due to the stochastic velocity, the strain rate and mixture-fraction oscillations.

Transient Flame Development in a Constant-Volume Vessel Using a Split-Scheme Injection Strategy

Multiple-injection strategies are characterized by a complex and transient interplay between high- and low-temperature reactions. Tracking low-temperature reaction products such as formaldehyde (CH2O) is particularly important to understand ignition phenomena and the so-called “combustion recession” that is observed in experiments. Experimentally, it is often difficult to discriminate between formaldehyde and other species such as poly-aromatic hydrocarbons, which is why a selective excitation approach is used in this work. Simultaneous high-speed imaging of the chemically-excited hydroxyl radical (OH*) is used to improve indication of flame location and second stage ignition. During experiments in a constant-volume vessel, two 0.5-ms injections of n-dodecane, separated by 0.5-ms dwell time, are injected into a 900-K ambient. The global flame development is characterized based on high-speed diagnostics, followed by an investigation into the spatial distribution of formaldehyde at four different times after start-of-injection (aSOI). Results show significant influence of the first injection on characteristics of the second. Ignition delay and lift-off location of the second injection are prominently reduced, while flame penetration is greatly enhanced by the wake of the first injection. Formaldehyde structure is observed during both end-of-injection transients, reaching as far upstream as 6 mm from the nozzle. Even after the second injection, the flame structure still appears to be influenced by the first, with a shorter lift-off length and compressed formaldehyde structure. Based on the selective excitation procedure, it becomes clear that the interpretation of laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) images obtained by 355-nm excitation alone is prone to ambiguity.

Simultaneous high-speed imaging and optogenetic inhibition in the intact mouse brain

Genetically encoded calcium indicators and optogenetic actuators can report and manipulate the activity of specific neuronal populations. However, applying imaging and optogenetics simultaneously has been difficult to establish in the mammalian brain, even though combining the techniques would provide a powerful approach to reveal the functional organization of neural circuits. Here, we developed a technique based on patterned two-photon illumination to allow fast scanless imaging of GCaMP6 signals in the intact mouse brain at the same time as single-photon optogenetic inhibition with Archaerhodopsin. Using combined imaging and electrophysiological recording, we demonstrate that single and short bursts of action potentials in pyramidal neurons can be detected in the scanless modality at acquisition frequencies up to 1 kHz. Moreover, we demonstrate that our system strongly reduces the artifacts in the fluorescence detection that are induced by single-photon optogenetic illumination. Finally, we validated our technique investigating the role of parvalbumin-positive (PV) interneurons in the control of spontaneous cortical dynamics. Monitoring the activity of cellular populations on a precise spatiotemporal scale while manipulating neuronal activity with optogenetics provides a powerful tool to causally elucidate the cellular mechanisms underlying circuit function in the intact mammalian brain.

Simultaneous OH-PLIF and schlieren imaging of flame acceleration in an obstacle-laden channel

Flame acceleration in stoichiometric H2/O2 at 12 and 25 kPa initial pressure in an obstacle-laden square cross-section channel was studied experimentally using planar laser-induced fluorescence imaging of hydroxyl radicals (OH-PLIF) and simultaneous high-speed schlieren imaging. Results were obtained resolving the explosion front structure as it develops immediately after ignition as a slow-flame to the eventual formation of a shock-flame complex in the fast-flame regime. The images provide a novel level of detail and allow for the determination of the effects of turbulence-flame and shock-flame interaction. In the slow-flame regime, vortex shedding off obstacle edges occurs over long time-scales, vortices are convected downstream and turbulent combustion takes place in the obstacle wakes. The fast-flame regime is marked by the presence of compression waves (and shock waves) which interact with the flame and cause macroscopic deformation of the flame and small-scale wrinkling due to Richtmyer-Meshkov instability. A quasi-steady fast-flame is characterized by the close proximity of the precursor shock and the turbulent flame. The flow-field that governs the flame shape is established impulsively by the precursor shock. Shock-flame interactions lead to flame front perturbations on both small and large scales. The OH-PLIF technique makes it possible to discern the flame front from other density interfaces that appear in the complex fast-flame structure observed in schlieren images and also eliminates the line-of-sight integration limitation.

An experimental investigation of saturated flow boiling heat transfer and pressure drop in square microchannels

In this study, saturated flow boiling characteristics of deionized water in parallel microchannels are investigated experimentally. The silicone microchannel heat sink consists of 29 parallel square microchannels having hydraulic diameters of 150 µm. Experiments have been conducted for four different values of the mass flux consisting of 51, 64.5, 78 and 92.6 kg/m2s and heat flux values from 59.3 to 84.1 kW/m2. Inlet temperature of deionized water is kept at 50 ± 1 °C. Heat transfer and pressure drop are examined for varying values of the governing parameters. Simultaneous high-speed video images have been taken as well as temperature and pressure measurements. The flow visualization results lead to key findings for flow boiling instabilities and underlying physical mechanisms of heat transfer in microchannels. Quasi-periodical rewetting and drying, rapid bubble growth and elongation toward both upstream and downstream of the channels and reverse flow are observed in parallel microchannels.

Contribution of Imaging Flow Cytometry to Storage Lesion Assessment: Identification of a Sub-Population of Morphologically Altered Erythrocytes

The storage lesion encompasses a series of biochemical and molecular modifications that alter erythrocytes during hypothermic storage, reducing transfusion yield. Indeed, in humans, up to 25% of transfused erythrocytes are cleared from the circulation in a few hours (Luten et al., 2008). The mechanisms underlying this rapid clearance are not fully elucidated but it is reasonable to assume that these erythrocyte alterations are sensed by the spleen, resulting in retention. Among those, membrane shedding may have a major impact on post-transfusion clearance of erythrocytes since it causes a progressive decrease in the surface-volume ratio of the cell, leading to the loss of its flexible biconcave shape. The proportion of "damaged" erythrocytes cleared in the hours following transfusion increases with the duration of storage while the deformability measured by ektacytometry (Frank et al., 2013) progressively decreases during this period. To characterize the morphological alteration of stored erythrocytes, we used imaging flow cytometry (Imagestream X Mark II, AMNIS°). This technology allows a simultaneous high-speed multispectral imaging of cells in brightfield, darkfield, and 9 channels of fluorescence. It combines the ability of conventional flow cytometry to analyze a very high number of events with a powerful exploration of cell morphology.We analyzed the morphological, biochemical, metabolic, and bio-mechanical characteristics of erythrocytes stored in optimal blood bank conditions for 6 donors, at Day 3, 21, 28, 35 and 42 of the storage period. This longitudinal study of parameters such as mean corpuscular volume, intracellular ATP level, hemolysis, osmotic fragility, deformability and the plasma levels of ions and metabolites has highlighted a great inter-donor variability in the storage lesion process. Moreover, Imagestream analysis of front views of sharp, single cells revealed a subpopulation of small erythrocytes. The "projected surface area" distribution on normalized frequency plots was bimodal in 5 of 6 concentrates, showing a well-demarcated subpopulation of less than 62 µm2. The proportion of this sub-population increased with storage from 0.5-3.4% at D3 to 4-23.5% at D42 (p<0.05). These cells displayed a low fluorescence staining in the EMA-binding test, a diagnostic test for hereditary spherocytosis. With a more detailed morphological analysis we could determine that this sub-population corresponds to a mix of echinocytes III, spherocytes and sphero-echinocytes (Bessis classification). These results have been confirmed by differential interference phase contrast microscopy (DIC) observations, carried out in parallel, as a gold standard of our imaging flow cytometry study. Indeed, we found a very good correlation between the proportion of small erythrocytes detected in imaging flow cytometry and the echinocytes III, sphero- and spheroechino-cytes detected by DIC (correlation coefficient=0.84).These morphological alterations have been considered irreversible (Berezina et al., 2002) and are reminiscent of those associated with mechanical clearance of erythrocytes in the spleen of patients with hereditary spherocytosis (Mohandas et al., 2008). We hypothesize that these storage-induced small erythrocytes correspond to the subpopulation of "damaged" erythrocytes that are rapidly cleared after transfusion. Confirmation of these findings using ex-vivo perfusion of human spleens and observational studies in transfused patients would support the use of imaging flow cytometry to predict transfusion yield. DisclosuresNo relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Universal mechanisms of sound production and control in birds and mammals.

As animals vocalize, their vocal organ transforms motor commands into vocalizations for social communication. In birds, the physical mechanisms by which vocalizations are produced and controlled remain unresolved because of the extreme difficulty in obtaining in vivo measurements. Here, we introduce an ex vivo preparation of the avian vocal organ that allows simultaneous high-speed imaging, muscle stimulation and kinematic and acoustic analyses to reveal the mechanisms of vocal production in birds across a wide range of taxa. Remarkably, we show that all species tested employ the myoelastic-aerodynamic (MEAD) mechanism, the same mechanism used to produce human speech. Furthermore, we show substantial redundancy in the control of key vocal parameters ex vivo, suggesting that in vivo vocalizations may also not be specified by unique motor commands. We propose that such motor redundancy can aid vocal learning and is common to MEAD sound production across birds and mammals, including humans.