Silver Dirham Research Articles

Арабская легенда серебряных монет со «стремявидной» тамгой

This article suggests a reading of the legend of the Golden Horde silver coins with a “stirrup-shaped” tamga, the inscription “minted in Crimea,” the motto “padishah of Islam,” and the lakab of the ruler: nuṣratun/al-dunya w-/al-dīn, or “the assistance to peace and faith.” The attempts to decipher the inscription showing abbreviations and inserted into the legend are restricted to the readings its ending, where A. K. Markov viewed “of the year six hundred and ninety,” and N. I. Veselovskii “of the year of eight hundred.” According to these readings, the first attributed the coins in question to the mintage of Iisu Nogai, giving him the khan’s title, and the second to the last years of Khan Toktamysh. N. P. Likhachev has run to the conclusion also shared by R. R. Fasmer that all the readings are doubtful. At present, the author of this article has attributed the silver coins with the “stirrup-shaped” tamga to the “Muslim” mintage of the master of the Crimean ulus Tuka Timur, a son of Jochi, that started in Crimea when Berke and the military elite of the Gorden Horde turned to Islam. The key to the reading of the mysterious legend is the silver dirhams minted in Konya by Izz ad-Din Keikavus II, a son of Giyas ad-Din Keikhusrov II, 658 AH (18.12.1259‒5.12.1260 AD), which until recently were attributed to Keikavus I and dated to 608 AH by S. Lane-Poole, A. K. Markov, A. Tewhid, and G. Hennequin. The legend on the Konya dirhams of Keikhusrov II written in the style similar to the legend on the “Muslim” coins of Tuka Timur reads: “Minted in the city of Konya in the year eight and five (=fifty) and six hundred.” There is an online publication with the correct definition of such a dirham originating from the oriental coins collection in the David Museum (Denmark), which publishers have attributed the spelling of the numerical “five” to the abbreviations dīvanī for the decade hamsin, which occur in the inscriptions of the mints of Saljūqiyān-i Rūm from 646 AH (26.04.1248‒15.04.1249) to the end of the Konya Sultanate (1307 AD). However, in this case the symbol seems to not correspond to the dīvanī abbreviation of “five” (o), though it resembles its indication tens as ones. The legend of the silver coins with “stirrup” tamga clearly show the dīvanī abbreviation “one” (o|) located on the imprint of the first coin stamp at hours 4‒5, and on all the later stamps at hour 12. The legend on the first coin stamp reads “This dinar was minted in Āḳrā in the year one (abbreviated as dīvanī) and six(ty), then ‒ six hundred,” and on the others as “You are minted in Āḳrā in the year one (dīvanī) and six(ty), then ‒ six hundred.” The initial date of the coin issue (661 AH) is not unexpected. It coincides with the date when Tuka Timur, Berke, and the military elite of the Golden Horde accepted Islam as the second religion of state (with the Tengri religion of the Mongols). which happened in the mid-661 AH. Especially important is the name of the mint Āḳrā, which appears together with the inscription on the same coin side as “minted in Crimea.” The same mint and the same mention of the Crimea (Qīrīm Āḳrā) appear on the “pre-Muslim” yarmaks of Tuka Timur, which preceded the coins with the “stirrup” tamga. Be that as it may, this article does not consider the question of the name and location of the Tukatimurids’ mint and the first “capital” of the Crimean ulus.

Исследование химического и изотопного Pb состава в дирхемах из Подболотьевского могильника

A series of silver dirhams and their imitations, originating from the burials of the Podbolotyevo burial ground left by the Muroma tribe, was studied by XRF, neutron diffraction and analysis of the isotopic composition using the Pb-Pb method. The burial ground is located near the city of Murom, Vladimir Region of Russia. The collection obtained from the excavations of this site includes finds of 40 original Arabic silver coins and silver coin replicas. The analyzed sample consists of 34 coins and includes dirhams dating back to the 9th century BC which are replicas of the Abassid dirhams; and the main array of coins dates back to the first third of the 10th century and the second half of the 10th century. The chemical composition studies of the metal by X-ray diffraction method showed that high-grade, “yellow” and multicomponent silver were used for minting dirhams. It was found out that there is a sharp drop in the silver content in the dirhams dating back from the middle to the second half of the 10th century, which reflects the general trend in Arabic coinage. It is also noted that in the sample from the Podbolotyevo burial ground, dirhems coin replica coins were made of high-grade silver. Silver purity for some of the coins from the analyzed sample was checked by neutron diffraction using a specialized DN-6 diffractometer at the IBR-2 high-flux reactor. The isotopic composition of lead in silver in coins from the analyzed sample was studied by the method of multicollector mass spectrometry with ionization of matter in inductively coupled plasma (MC-ICP-MS). The obtained data on the isotopic composition of Pb in the silver of the coins showed that the precious metal for minting both Arab dirhams at the mints of ash-Shash, Samarkand, Bukhara, and their replicas comes from the deposits in Central Asia. It has been established that the Lashkerek and Ilak deposits turned out to be the source of silver for some dirhams from the Podbolotyevo burial ground, however, mixed silver from several deposits was mainly used.

Тамга «Гуюка» и Джучиды дома Ордуидов (история одной ошибки)

Research objectives: The purpose of this study is to attribute unusual tamghas found on silver dirhams to the representatives of the House of Chingizids and establish their chronological attribution. Research materials: We have examined silver coins with unusual tamghas discovered in Kazakhstan. One tamgha is depicted as two circles connected by a line. Our focus is on a type of dirhams that has been known since the early 20th century. These dirhams lacked attribution but were published by N.P. Likhachev due to the presence of an unusual tamgha. The weight of these coins is approximately 1 gram, and the coin legends do not provide conclusive information for dating. We have identified three types of dirhams. One type of dirhams can be dated to 685 AH/1286 CE. It bears an inscription, yet there are challenges in interpreting these legends, including reading the name of the mint. The tamga was previously attributed as the property mark of Ogedei Khan. Two types of coins remain anonymous. We have identified three types of tamghas on these coins. Results and novelty of the research: We have identified a region with a significant number of discovered coins, primarily located in the vicinity of the medieval towns of Barchanlig-Ashnas-Jend in the Aral Sea region. It has been determined that some coins were minted on silver dirhams of Khwarazm during 681–690 AH. One dirham retains the original year of issue, 688 AH/1289 CE. These coins are not associated with the minting of Ogedei, and the tamgha on them does not match either. These dirhams were minted under the authority of Konichi, the ruler of the Ordu ulus. This research has opened up a new avenue in the field of Juchid numismatics. The exploration in this direction holds promise for shaping new insights into specific historical events within the Orduid’s ulus.

Weighing the Baghdādī Raṭl: A Metrological Muddle

Abstract This study addresses a metrological muddle: attempts to determine the metrical equivalence of the Baghdādī raṭl, a measure for coins, commerce, and religious requirements during the Abbasid and Mamluk eras. Western writers Sauvaire and Hinz interpreted the measure of the widespread Baghdādī raṭl by determining a metric equivalent around three grams for the building block of the silver dirham weight. Islamic scholars, however, proposed three different dirham amounts for this raṭl and noted that there were two different ways of determining the standard ratio of the dirham to the dinar. These scholars applied the Baghdādī raṭl of their day to determine the weights of two earlier measures, the ṣāʿ and the mudd from the time of the Prophet Muḥammad. The study of Islamic era metrology has received little critical attention, apart from the field of numismatics, since the work of Walther Hinz, last updated in 1970. I provide a prolegomenon for the need to reread both earlier Muslim authors and the seminal works of Don Vasquez Queipo, Henri Sauvaire and others. Suggestions for approaching the interpretation of Islamic era weights and measures are provided.

Between Sunnah Currency and Sufi Doctrine: Mediating and Negotiating the Gold Dinar and Silver Dirham on Digital Platforms by the Indonesian Murabitun

The Murabitun World Movement promotes the gold dinar and silver dirham as authentic Islamic currency tools. However, their vision of establishing an independent Islamic currency is rejected by the socio-political dynamics of the communities’ home countries. Using Talal Asad’s theory of Islam as a discursive tradition, the study investigates the local practices of the Murabitun among Indonesian Muslims, with particular attention to their cultural identity. This study relies much on online data and cyber resources. The Indonesian Murabitun actively promoted the circulation of the gold dinar and silver dirham as an Islamic currency at the Pasar Muamala (exchange market) in Madiun and Yogyakarta. The Indonesian Murabitun movement was initially established in Depok, West Java by Zaim Saidi with his creation of the Pasar Muamala. After Zaim Saidi was formally charged with violating the currency law, his movement lose much its influence. However, utilizing the dynamics of the socio-political landscape this movement has continued to be actively involved in promoting the gold dinar and silver dirham currency—as an alternative transaction tool alongside the regular currency—on digital media platforms.

Technical Analysis, Laser Cleaning and Numismatic Study of Tarnished Abbasid Silver Dirham from the 4th C A.H. (10th A.D)

Technical Analysis, Laser Cleaning and Numismatic Study of Tarnished Abbasid Silver Dirham from the 4th C A.H. (10th A.D)

Именные дирхамы Кайду в Хорасане – новый источник по истории монетного обращения Средней Азии в конце XIII в.

Research objectives: An introduction to the scientific circulation of the coins of Khorasan with legends written in Preclassical Mongol, containing the names of Qaidu (c. 1235/36-1301), the grandson of Ögödei Qa’an, as well as Qaidu’s son, Oros. Research materials: Five silver dirhams are studied. One coin is clearly dated to 690/1291, while three other specimens are specifically related to the production of the Marw mint. The fifth specimen bears the mint name of Marw and Qaidu’s tamgha. Results and novelty of the research: The conclusion is made that the appearance of these coins at the mint belonging to the Hülegüids is associated with the rebellion of the Ilkhanid amir Nawruz and the invasion of Qaidu and his ally, the Chaghatayid khan, Duwa, into Khorasan in 690 A.H. (1291). The legends provide additional information to supplement written records on this invasion and the subsequent short-term occupation of Khorasan by Qaidu’s troops.

Hadis tentang Uang: Analisis Syarah terhadap Nilai Uang dalam Perspektif Ekonomi Islam

This study aims to discuss the understanding of hadith about the value of money in the perspective of Islamic economics. This research applies a qualitative type through literature study using thematic, takhrij, and syarah hadith methods as well as descriptive analysis. The discussion of this research includes an overview of money, thematic hadiths regarding money, and an understanding of the hadith about the value of money from an Islamic economic perspective in the contemporary era. This study concludes that the money used by Muslims at the time of the Prophet was Persian silver dirhams and Roman gold dinars, traditions about money are known to be maqbul traditions and can be used as evidence, and the understanding of hadiths about the value of money is closely related to buying and selling and selling. an effective prohibition of usury for controlling inflation so that people's purchasing power is maintained and economic stability is created, in this case Islamic economics which emphasizes increasing people's welfare is recognized in this contemporary era dealing with money politics with the ideology of capitalism.

The Role of Trade in the Conversion to Islam and in the History of the Volga Bulghars

The trade-network of Afro-Eurasia changed radically in the 9th–10th centuries, instead of the former east-west routes the south-north came to the fore. The Volga-Kama region became the most important port of trade between the Islamic world and Eastern Europe in the beginning of the 10th century which set in motion the formation of the Volga Bulghar state and the conversion to Islam. The Volga Bulghars are mentioned in the Muslim sources as the center of trade. Ibn Faḍlān, al-Masʿūdī give a detailed picture of this intensive trade. The Muslim dirhams came from Samanid mints to the Volga region and the Volga Bulghar merchants bought northern merchandise (furs, slaves, wax, honey etc.) in the 10th century. Al-Muqaddasī gives an exhaustive list of trade goods from the Volga Bulgar area at the end of the 10th century. After the disappearance of the silver dirhams in the first decades of the 11th century the state of the Volga Bulghars remained a significant trade center. The Muslim maps of Ibn Ḥawqal, Maḥmūd al-Kāshġarī and al-Idrīsī reflect a river system called Etil which is waterway commercial network. It connects Central Asia via Siberia with the Volga-Kama region, the northern regions can be reached on the way along the Kama and perhaps the Vyatka, the northeastern network includes the Oka, Unzha and upper Volga. The southern routes represent the lower Volga from the territory of Volga Bulghars to the Caspian Sea and the Volga-Don portage plus the lower Don until its estuary to the Azov Sea.

Находки монет Золотой Орды в Индии и Китае

Research objectives: The study of all known Golden Horde coin finds in India and China. Research materials: All the known coin finds of the Golden Horde in India and China in the context of published coin finds (the research of Ch.J. Rodgers, M.A. Stein, and others). Results and novelty of the research: The author, for the first time ever, summarized the information about Golden Horde coin finds from these two countries. All Golden Horde coins from China and a portion of Golden Horde coins from India (Indian museum) were minted in Khwarazm. There is numismatic catalogue of Islamic coins from the Calcutta Museum where it is possible to find information about Golden Horde coins from the collection of the museum. Any information about finds of these coins is absent in this publication. However, it is most probable that these coins were found in India because the numismatic collections of such local museums were created practically only from local finds. The Golden Horde coins from the Calcutta Museum collection are mainly silver dirhams of the fourteenth century from Khwarazm, but there are also several coins from Lower Volga region. Probably, the Golden Horde coins went to India and China via Khwarazm. The materials published in the article gives archaeological evidence about close trade routes between Khwarazm on one end and India and Eastern Turkestan on the other end. The peak activity on these trade routes is dated to the second half of fourteenth century (mainly the coins of Uzbek and Janibek Khan of the Golden Horde). At the end of fourteenth century, the most important cities of the Golden Horde were in decline or ceased to exist as a result of Timur’s campaigns against it. The main trade routes between East and West shifted towards the south and stopped passing through the territory of the Ulus of Jochi. Not a single specimen of the finds is dated to the fifteenth century.

Recent Finds of Islamic Coins from the Old Town and Zawodzie Districts in Kalisz

A settlement cluster around Kalisz first emerged in the Roman Period on a route leading from the south towards the Baltic coast. In the Early Middle Ages, a settlement centre connected with the Kalisz-Zawodzie stronghold developed at the crossroads of trade routes linking Wielkopolska with Silesia, Mazowsze, and Małopolska, with the earliest traces of early medieval occupation dating back to the 8th century. In the 10th century, oriental silver in the form of silver dirhams started to flow into the discussed region. These coins were part of deposits discovered in the sites of Kalisz-Szałe and Kalisz-Rajsków. Many years of research on artisanal settlement Kalisz-Stare Miasto produced a few fragments of Sāmānid dirhams minted between AH 279–343 (892–954). In 2018, during research at the Church of St. Adalbert located within the Kalisz-Zawodzie settlement accompanying the stronghold, a part of what was probably a larger silver deposit was found. In total, 13 dirham fragments were recovered, among which Sāmānid emissions dated to the first half of the 10th century were identified (8 pcs), as well as five pieces of undetermined dynastic attribution. As demonstrated by the stratigraphic analysis, the early medieval hoard had been discovered and dispersed at some point during the period when the church cemetery was used, between the 17th century and second half of the 18th century.

Lead Isotopic Characteristics and Metal Sources for the Jewelry in the Medieval Rural Settlements from the Suzdal Region (Kievan Rus’)

The article considers the results of the study of lead isotope composition of 38 non-ferrous artifacts discovered at medieval rural sites of the Suzdal Region (Kievan Rus’). The copper-alloy, silver and pewter artifacts were compared with reference data from geographically and temporally diverse medieval artifacts and ore deposits and revealed differing source regions and supply networks within and between metal types. The identification in some cases was difficult due to the conformity of the lead isotopic composition of deposits of some regions. The copper-alloys, represented mostly by crosses made of high-tin bronze, show close isotopic parallels to contemporary copper alloys from Southern Scandinavia, Westphalia and Lower Saxony. Since the copper alloys contain significant quantities of lead, this lead may have entered the metal by alloying with lead-tin alloys, by smelting mixed copper-lead ore, or through haphazard alloying with lead. The lead isotope ratios for nearly all copper alloys are consistent with deposits in Cornwall and Devon and remobilized ore from the Rhenish Massif. For silver and lead-tin alloy objects, lead isotope analyses point to wide ranging sources. Most silver objects are consistent with mid-to-late 10th century silver stocks circulating in the Baltic area and 10th century Volga-Bulgar silver dirham imitations probably representing mixtures of 9th-10th century Islamic silver. The silver shows a heavy reliance on 10th century mixed stocks and there are little indications of Central and Western European silver, which was common in the 11th century Baltic region. The pewter and lead, however, indicate other sources. Lead isotope ratios are consistent with sources connected to Mediterranean and Baltic networks, some being consistent with sources in England, but it is possible that the lead found in some pewter objects could come from the Olkusz lead district in southern Poland.

REVISITING THE GOLD AND SILVER NISAB FOR ZAKAT: A NUMISMATIC STUDY OF PROPHETIC ERA DINAR AND DIRHAM WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

In the pivotal second year of Hijrah, a series of momentous events unfolded in Madinah, marking significant transformations within the Muslim community. Central to this period was the divine ordinance of Zakat, mandating Muslims to allocate 2.5% of wealth, exceeding the nisab threshold, towards charitable deeds. Historically, this threshold was defined by the weight of 20 gold dinars or 200 silver dirhams, echoing a time predating the metric system's introduction in the late 18th century. This study investigates historical numismatic evidence to scrutinize established weights of dinars and dirhams from the Nabawi era, contrasting traditional values with those determined by contemporary numismatists — approximately 4.25 grams for dinars and 2.975 grams for dirhams, reflecting a 10:7 weight relationship not evident during the Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) lifetime nor during the era of his great-grandfather, Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf (464-497 CE). The finding reveals discrepancies stemming from the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik’s monetary reforms in the 7th century, which significantly lowered the standard weights of these currencies. By critically examining historical narratives alongside modern numismatic findings, this study proposes an alternative, empirically substantiated Taqribi (approximate) definition for the dinar and dirham. This reevaluation not only challenges longstanding fiscal conventions but also aligns with Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi’s assertion on the necessity of redefining Zakat thresholds for contemporary application. Findings advocate for a revision back to the nisab’s original standards, thereby honoring directives against altering the Muslim ummah’s monetary foundations, as evidenced by teachings. Through analytical journey, aspiration is to restore authentic nisab values for gold and silver, offering a recalibrated framework for Islamic economic practices.

Money and its Relationship to Price Movement in the Maritime Mamluk State (648-784 AH / 1250-1383 CE)

Islamic coins are considered among the most important economic history for they contain phrases, ornaments and nicknames. Names are considered as important records for many political, social, religious and economic events which Islamic world witnessed. They also represent one of the financial resources which have no suspicion in a sense that they corrected many concepts which were taken wrongly by historians. Because of the importance of coins in studying commercial activity of Mamalik state, we choose it as a subject of study. Trading goods prices are connected with current monetary coins in Mamloki markets. The process of spending them is a real problem especially in relation to economic situation of that period of time. Naval Mamloki states that Islamic states used golden dinars and silver dirhams. They used such kind of coins as a result of the social need in purchasing goods which have less prices than dirhams. As a result of corruption and fake coins, people started to deal with weighting coins instead of counting.

Simultaneous lead isotope ratio and gold-lead-bismuth concentration analysis of silver by laser ablation MC-ICP-MS

A new approach is presented for the simultaneous analysis of lead isotope ratios and gold, lead, and bismuth concentrations in metallic silver using nanosecond laser ablation multi-collector inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-MC-ICP-MS). Corrections for both isotope and concentration analyses are performed using an in-house matrix matched silver reference material RM3834. Accuracy and external reproducibility are demonstrated by repeat analyses of a further seven silver reference materials all characterised by solution (MC)-ICP-MS approaches. Typical internal precisions, expressed as two relative standard errors (S.E.) of the mean of the cycles comprising one analysis, are <0.5% for 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb, and <0.03% for 207Pb/206Pb and 208Pb/206Pb. External reproducibilities, based on repeat analyses over a 10 month period and expressed as two relative standard deviations (S.D.) of the mean, are <0.4% for 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb and <0.2% for 207Pb/206Pb and 208Pb/206Pb. Internal precisions and external reproducibilities of gold, lead and bismuth concentration analyses are typically <25%. Data are consistent with solution-based approaches. Methods are further demonstrated through analyses of a set of Islamic silver dirhams from the mint of al-Muhammadiyya, highlighting their applicability to geochemical studies of archaeological artefacts.

The Retributive Proportionality and Islamic Punishment of Diyyah

Western Penal theory of ‘Retribution’ is based upon the philosophy of proportional punishment for a crime. The research focuses on the practical application of a philosophical idea in the Islamic punishment of diyyah. The main findings are the perfect application of the element of retributive ‘proportionality’ in all diyyah laws. The proportionality proved to be the basic rule of diyyah punishment where the homicide along with the bodily harms are proportionally compensated with the principle amount of hundred camels, ten thousand silver dirhams or one thousand gold dinars keeping in view the utility or the number of body parts of that organ. The damage to entire body in the shape of death, complete damage to a sense, to an organ or its utility, is proportionally compensated with full diyyah however the organs having more than one part are compensated with the proportional amount to the number of that body part in human body which results in half diyyah for damage to one hand, leg, eye or eyebrow and quarter for each eyelid. In this way each organ, its utility or each sense is proportionally compensated with adequate and proportional diyyah amount.

Studies of Coins of Medieval Volga Bulgaria by Neutron Diffraction and Tomography

The phase composition and spatial distribution of chemical components in the volume of coins of medieval Volga Bulgaria are studied using the neutron-diffraction- and neutron-tomography methods. Two coins belonging to different time periods of this medieval state are studied: a Samanid multidirham dating from the first half of the 10th Century and a silver dirham dating from the period of the reign of the Bulgarian emir Bulat-Timur. It is established that both coins consist of a copper-silver alloy. In the Samanid multidirham, the average volume contents of copper and silver are found to be about 50%. Minor spatial variations in the chemical composition are found in the volume of the multidirham under study. It is established that the volume average silver content in the Bulat-Timur dirham is about 95%.

EVENT DIRHAMS OF THE ABBASID CALIPH AL-MU'TAZID BILLAH (279-289 H) - (892-902 AD) An analytical study

Islamic money is an important source of Islamic history and civilization. It is considered an official document that is difficult to challenge in terms of its scientific value. Therefore, money gained its importance in Islamic history as a symbol of the king or authority. In which he struck reflect all his political, religious, sectarian, economic and social conditions, among others. Therefore, we discussed in this research the two silver dirhams in the context of the study of the unique and important events and events that were held by the Caliph Al-Mu'tazid Bellah in the year (282 AH, 895 AD) and narrated through their texts and inscriptions historical events that were behind the beating of the Dirhams.

The Role of Gold Dinar And Silver Dirham User Entrepreneurship Community in Dinar-Dirham Replacement Equipment As a Medium of Exchange

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Money in Classical Islam: Legal Theory and Economic Practice

AbstractThe present study examines the conception of money in classical Islamic law, specifically the relationship between scholarly discourses on money and actual economic practice. I shall argue that the theoretical concept of money was to some extent a fiction. Muslim jurists conceived of money in terms of a three-tier currency system that involved gold dinars, silver dirhams and copper fulūs. The market was much more complex. A wide range of coins of various metallic content, weight and value circulated. In the first part of the study I describe the complexity of Islamic money markets. In the second part, I investigate how scholars reacted to the gap between theory and practice and posit some tentative conclusions about the relationship between Islamic law and practice.