Significant Number Of Errors Research Articles

Extra-Texts of Epiphanius the Wise

The Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius collection (Russian State Library) has two preserved parchment codices created by famous old Russian writer Epiphanius the Wise: the Stichetarion of 1380 (Tr. 22) and the Collection of the beginning of the 15th Century (Tr. 34). The records made in the margins of the Stichetarion have been known to researchers earlier, however the extra-texts on sheets 40 and 48 contain a significant number of errors. Besides, the date given on sheet 48 has been questioned by researchers. The Collection Tr. 34, in contrast to the code of Tr. 22, has not been studied properly. It attracted the interest of researchers at the end of the last century. The most valuable records on sheets 151v and 153r were severely damaged, and therefore were neglected by Scholars. The article deals with the results of the records survey made by Epiphanius. The investigation of the record on sheet 48 of the codex Tr. 22 confirms its traditional dating (1380). Special attention in the article is paid to the disputable fragments of Stichetarion Tr. 22 records and the damaged records of the Collection Tr. 34 (previously unpublished).

Retracted: Antibiotic Resistance in Salmonella Enteritidis Isolates Recovered from Chicken, Chicken Breast, and Humans Through National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System Between 1996 and 2014.

The online e-pub version of the article entitled, Antibiotic Resistance in Salmonella Enteritidis Isolates Recovered from Chicken, Chicken Breast, and Humans Through National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System Between 1996 and 2014" by Paudyal N, Pan H, Li X. Fang W. Yue M., Foodborne Pathog Dis [Epub ahead of print]; DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2017.2402 is being officially retracted from Foodborne Pathogens and Disease (FPD) due to a significant number of errors in reporting and miscalculations of the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) datasets reported in the paper. Authors evaluated NARMS data, which are in the public domain, and analyzed a subset of NARMS data to address questions about a specific serotype of Salmonella in humans and chicken meat. Authors analyzed Salmonella Enteritidis isolates from humans, chicken and retail chicken meat, with their minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) to a range of commonly used antibiotics in the US collected over a period of 1996-2014 by NARMS, to segregate isolates based on their MIC value for a certain antimicrobial and evaluate their relationship along the foodborne transmission pathway. NARMS has data on more than 185,000 isolates that can be downloaded in an accessible format. To help make these large data sets more accessible, the NARMS teams continue to develop new tools to enable users to explore them according to their own interests. As a public health surveillance system, the goal is continuous improvement and open, transparent data sharing. The NARMS partners believe this is the best way to foster a collaborative effort to combat antibiotic resistance. After the online-ahead-of-print version of the paper, which used a subset of NARMS data, was published, a significant concern was brought to the attention of the Editor-in-Chief of FPD indicating that the article contained several significant errors which could potentially lead to a misunderstanding of the resistance situation in the United States. Of particular import is with regard to the authors of the paper reversing the poultry and human resistance data found in Figure 2, which displays the overall antimicrobial resistance data and is a central element of the article. The authors correctly state it in the text, but the figure is incorrect. Additionally, there appeared to be an accidental omission of a reference to a published article which shows a strong association between quinolone-resistant Salmonella Enteritidis infections in humans and international travel (O'Donnell et al., 2014) This appears to be a critical oversight given that the intention of the study was to analyze the NARMS data to help understand the dynamics of Salmonella transmission. The authors of the published article were notified of this communication by the Editor of FPD and were provided an opportunity to respond, which they quickly did. The corresponding author, Dr. Min Yue, agreed that after he and his team reanalyzed the data, there were indeed errors in the published paper and supplied revised versions of Figure 2 and supplemental Figure 3, as well as providing a significantly revised version of the manuscript, based upon the criticisms levied against the published paper. After giving the revised manuscript and figures very careful consideration, and after significant probing of his own, the Editor of FPD determined that the significantly revised manuscript, coupled with the multiple errors presented in the figures, is simply far too weighty for a correction statement to be issued, and determined a full retraction of the published article was warranted. It is important to note that there is no indication whatsoever that the errors or miscalculations were intentional, and that Dr. Yue and his team quickly and honestly replied to the concerns raised about their work. However, in the interest of upholding the proper protocols of peer review, and in accurate and truthful reporting in the scientific literature, the Editor of Foodborne Pathogens and Diseases is issuing this full and formal retraction of the article.

Reframing the role of Australian mayors: an update and rejoinder to Grant, Dollery and Kortt (2016)

ABSTRACTRecent moves for local government reform in several states of Australia have focused in part on a perceived need for more effective civic leadership, and in particular the role of mayors. Proposed legislation in New South Wales and Victoria would expand the responsibilities of mayors in several areas, such as community engagement, partnerships with key stakeholders, strategic planning and providing guidance to the chief executive officer. In 2012 the Australian Centre of Excellence for Local Government (ACELG) published a discussion paper that canvassed these issues as well as the way in which mayors are elected. That paper elicited a strongly adverse critique by Grant, Dollery and Kortt, now published as an article in this issue of Local Government Studies. Regrettably their critique failed to offer a constructive contribution to the debate sought by ACELG, and the article contains a number of significant errors and misleading statements that demand a response.

Reporting the Unreported- A Case of Neglected Errors of Supervisors in Random Blinded Rechecking of AFB Smears

Reporting the Unreported- A Case of Neglected Errors of Supervisors in Random Blinded Rechecking of AFB Smears

Language translation for file paths

Forensic examiners are frequently confronted with content in languages that they do not understand, and they could benefit from machine translation into their native language. But automated translation of file paths is a difficult problem because of the minimal context for translation and the frequent mixing of multiple languages within a path. This work developed a prototype implementation of a file-path translator that first identifies the language for each directory segment of a path, and then translates to English those that are not already English nor artificial words. Brown's LA-Strings utility for language identification was tried, but its performance was found inadequate on short strings and it was supplemented with clues from dictionary lookup, Unicode character distributions for languages, country of origin, and language-related keywords. To provide better data for language inference, words used in each directory over a large corpus were aggregated for analysis. The resulting directory-language probabilities were combined with those for each path segment from dictionary lookup and character-type distributions to infer the segment's most likely language. Tests were done on a corpus of 50.1 million file paths looking for 35 different languages. Tests showed 90.4% accuracy on identifying languages of directories and 93.7% accuracy on identifying languages of directory/file segments of file paths, even after excluding 44.4% of the paths as obviously English or untranslatable. Two of seven proposed language clues were shown to impair directory-language identification. Experiments also compared three translation methods: the Systran translation tool, Google Translate, and word-for-word substitution using dictionaries. Google Translate usually performed the best, but all still made errors with European languages and a significant number of errors with Arabic and Chinese.

Comprehensively designed consensus of standalone secondary structure predictors improves Q3 by over 3%

Protein fold is defined by a spatial arrangement of three types of secondary structures (SSs) including helices, sheets, and coils/loops. Current methods that predict SS from sequences rely on complex machine learning-derived models andprovide the three-state accuracy (Q3) at about 82%. Further improvements in predictive quality could be obtained with a consensus-based approach, which so far received limited attention. We perform first-of-its-kind comprehensive design of a SS consensus predictor (SScon), in which we consider 12 modern standalone SS predictors and utilize Support Vector Machine (SVM) to combine their predictions. Using a large benchmark data-set with 10 random training-test splits, we show that a simple, voting-based consensus of carefully selected base methods improves Q3 by 1.9% when compared to the best single predictor. Use of SVM provides additional 1.4% improvement with the overall Q3 at 85.6% and segment overlap (SOV3) at 83.7%, when compared to 82.3 and 80.9%, respectively, obtained by the best individual methods. We also show strong improvements when the consensus is based on ab-initio methods, with Q3 = 82.3% and SOV3 = 80.7% that match the results from the best template-based approaches. Our consensus reduces the number of significant errors where helix is confused with a strand, provides particularly good results for short helices and strands, and gives the most accurate estimates of the content of individual SSs in the chain. Case studies are used to visualize the improvements offered by the consensus at the residue level. A web-server and a standalone implementation of SScon are available at http://biomine.ece.ualberta.ca/SSCon/.

Logic-based assessment of the compatibility of UMLS ontology sources

BackgroundThe UMLS Metathesaurus (UMLS-Meta) is currently the most comprehensive effort for integrating independently-developed medical thesauri and ontologies. UMLS-Meta is being used in many applications, including PubMed and ClinicalTrials.gov. The integration of new sources combines automatic techniques, expert assessment, and auditing protocols. The automatic techniques currently in use, however, are mostly based on lexical algorithms and often disregard the semantics of the sources being integrated.ResultsIn this paper, we argue that UMLS-Meta’s current design and auditing methodologies could be significantly enhanced by taking into account the logic-based semantics of the ontology sources. We provide empirical evidence suggesting that UMLS-Meta in its 2009AA version contains a significant number of errors; these errors become immediately apparent if the rich semantics of the ontology sources is taken into account, manifesting themselves as unintended logical consequences that follow from the ontology sources together with the information in UMLS-Meta. We then propose general principles and specific logic-based techniques to effectively detect and repair such errors.ConclusionsOur results suggest that the methodologies employed in the design of UMLS-Meta are not only very costly in terms of human effort, but also error-prone. The techniques presented here can be useful for both reducing human effort in the design and maintenance of UMLS-Meta and improving the quality of its contents.

Mobile robot localization with gyroscope and constrained Kalman filter

The odometry information used in mobile robot localization can contain a significant number of errors when robot experiences slippage. To offset the presence of these errors, the use of a low-cost gyroscope in conjunction with Kalman filtering methods has been considered by many researchers. However, results from conventional Kalman filtering methods that use a gyroscope with odometry can unfeasible because the parameters are estimated regardless of the physical constraints of the robot. In this paper, a novel constrained Kalman filtering method is proposed that estimates the parameters under the physical constraints using a general constrained optimization technique. The state observability is improved by additional state variables and the accuracy is also improved through the use of a nonapproximated Kalman filter design. Experimental results show that the proposed method effectively offsets the localization error while yielding feasible parameter estimation.

Ligeti, Kurtág, and Hungarian Musk during the Cold War. Music in the Twentieth Century by Rachel Beckles Willson (review)

reviews 545 blurring thechronological andaesthetic boundaries ina waythatmight reflect Cherepnin'snomadic life-style but which risksnarrativeand analytical clarity. Littleis said,forinstance, ofhowhe survived theNazi occupationof Paris.The composereventually paid a visitto SovietRussia in 1967(very muchin theveinofStravinskii's tripin 1962),whichoccasionedtheremark that'theParisianartistic climatehelpedyou think in yournativelanguage, encourageyou to aspireto nationaloriginality. And I mustsaythat,having lived in France forover thirty years,that helped me remaina Russian composer'(p. 66). This conviction ofhisessential Russianness, hisquip that 'thefolkloric "cure"'was 'thebestmedicineagainstabstruse abstractions' (for whichread thepost-Schoenbergian hegemony ofBoulez and hiscomrades), and hissensethattheprofession ofcomposerentailed'a mission to servethe community towhichhe belongs, whichstimulates him'(p. 208),all constitute pointsofcreative contact withofficial Sovietartistic policy;itisnotsurprising that, unlikeStravinskii, he warmedto themusicofShostakovich, writing ofa performance ofthe8thSymphony in 1970that'thehumanity ofhisart,the breadthofhisform[.. .] seemsto answertheimmensity ofour nativeland and embodyitin music'(p. 163). Korabelnikovacites extensively froma vast range of publishedand unpublished material(muchofitpreparedby BenjaminFolkman), and her own contributions are written withpassion and enthusiasm ('The Fourth Symphony is undoubtedly thebestand mostRussianofall', p. 173).Those interested in the sound of Cherepnin'smusic itselfwill want to look elsewhere, guidedbythelistofworksand recordings thatare includedas an appendix, as wellas bythecomposer's ownstatements ofhisartistic technique and credo.Handsomelypresented by Indiana University Pressand sympathetically translated by Anna Winestein, thetextitself nonetheless contains a significant numberof errors, principally in the consistency of translation fromtheRussianand in theuse ofthesoftsign(i.e. 'Zhizn', 'Deiatelnost", 'Vospominania', 'Pisma','Rossia',even'Zarubezhnaia'and 'prosvetitelskaya' in thesame title, as wellas theeccentric 'KratkiPudevoditel'po Byvshemy SpezkhranuRossiiskovoGodudarstvennovo ArkhivaLiteratury i Iskusstva, which,incidentally, shouldbe abbreviated as RGALI rather thananglicized as RSALA). Apartfrom speakers ofSwedish, no one has referred to Helsinki as Helsingfors (p. 59) formanyyears,and Taneev's cantata,Ioann Damaskin, oughtproperly to be either John ofDamascus orJohn Damascene, butcertainly notthemacaronic Johann Damaskin (p. 78). Wadham College, Oxford PhilipRoss Bullock Beckles Willson, Rachel. Ligeti, Kurtág, andHungarian Musk during theCold War. Music in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge,2007. xvii + 282 pp. Music examples.Notes. Personalia. Bibliography. Index.£50.00: $95.00. For a smallnationwitha peculiarly self-destructive recenthistory, Hungary has shownremarkable powersofsurvival in a numberofspheres, musicas 546 seer, 87, 3, July 2009 muchas anyother.Bartókhas notlostan inchofhisstature as one ofthe halfdozengreatest twentieth-century composers. Hungarianperformers have been as prominent in worldmusicas Scottishpoliticians at Westminster. Above all, in the last half-century two composershave emergedfrom Budapestwhom it is plausible,thoughnot compulsory, to regardas the mostbrilliant oftheir generation anywhere. The factthatGyörgy ligeti and György Kurtágwerebothbornnotin Hungaryat all butin theHungarianspeaking partofRomanianwestern Transylvania, and lessthanthreeyears apart,makestheconjunction still moreremarkable. Suchparallelsinvite exploration, notleastbecauselifehas treated thetwo composersso verydifferently. WhereasLigetifledfromKádár's Budapest soon after theOctober1956rising and spenttherestofhislife(he died in 2006) on and aroundtheinternational circuit oftheWestEuropeanavantgarde ,Kurtágstayedin Hungary(moreor less)untilthenineties and was scarcely known outside specialized Western circles before1980.Paradoxically, itis thisdivergence, and thesharpmusicaldifferences associated withit,that supplytherationaleofRachel BecklesWillson'sbook. She confesses in her introduction thattheremightseem something forcedabout the resulting design, butdefends iton thegrounds thatLigetineverentirely cuthimself off from hisstylistic andespecially linguistic roots, so thatthecontrasts are likethosebetweenbrothers separatedin childhood: inherently instructive no matter howseemingly comprehensive. This is a book, then,that operateson two levels: that of the large comparative design, and thatoftherichsourcing ofbackground information. The projectitself is certainly ambitious fora bookoflessthan300 pages.It alternates chapters ofbroadhistorical focuswithdetailedstudies whichzero in on particular aspectsand contexts of the composers'work.A perhaps dispensable sectionon Hungarianmusicbetweendie warsis followed by a valuableandwelldocumented survey ofthepost-war phasebefore1956,after whichthelargerpartofthebookfacesup to whatitsomewhat disarmingly describes as 'theparting ofways'.It's at thispointthatthegrandplan turns a little awkward, because no matter how thoroughly BecklesWillsontraces hertwomaincomposers' respective developments to theircommonsources in Hungarianmusic,literature and language,sheis neverquiteable to show whatitis aboutLigeti'smusicthatrootsitessentially inhisnativesoil,rather thanin thedeep mulchoftheinfluences to whichhe was subjected after he left. Thereremains a senseofparallelstudies - nowthis, nowthat, nowthis again- whichworks againsttheintegrationist, synthetic idea thatis implied bythetitle. It isunfortunately truethatmodernsubsidized research favours problematizing , whereasthe'realstrength ofa scholarlikeBecklesWillsonliesin her detailedknowledge of a particular scene and the factthatshe is uniquely equippedto trawlthesewatersand identify themarinelife, whatiteatsand is eatenby. Her pictureof Hungarianmusicafterthewar is illuminating because she knowswhatHungariansweresayingto and about each other, and itisinthiscontext thatone can begintounderstand whatitwas thatthe Kurtág of the WebernesqueStringQuartetand the Ligetiof Aventures emerged from in thelatefifties and whytheir worktooktheform itdid. reviews 547 In theseventies, whenWestern critics including thepresent writer started visiting Hungaryand reviewing itsnew music- withthefinancial help...

The combined effect of speech codec quality and transmission delay on human performance during complex spoken interactions

This paper examines the effect of interaction between speech codec output quality and simulated satellite or VoIP transmission delay time on talker performance in a complex interaction. A hardware test codec (both single and tandem) was compared against a number of processed speech reference conditions to determine the relative subjective quality of the test codecs against conditions with known Mean Opinion Scores (MOS). The two codec conditions plus an additional higher quality condition were then used in an experiment that examined the effect of the interaction of transmitted speech quality and simulated transmission delay on a speech shadowing task and an accompanying error repair task involving two speakers. One person (the “reader”) read a passage. The second person (the “shadower”) shadowed the read passage by repeating immediately the words spoken by the reader. The reader, whilst reading, also listened for errors spoken by the shadower and repaired those errors by verbally reporting them to the shadower. A significant interaction between codec quality and transmission delay was found for the error repair task, but only for cases where the shadower made a significant number of errors. These results suggest that, for highly complex interactions which involve significant cognitive load, human performance will degrade more rapidly with increases in delay for transmission systems using speech codecs with lower quality output. This is assumed to be due to the additional demands upon working memory imposed by the transmission delay.

Effects of informational maskers within and across trials

The across-trial effect of maskers in conditions of informational masking was evaluated from performance on occasional trials in which the signal was presented alone. For 6 of 12 listeners participating in the study, a significant number of errors were obtained on signal-alone trials; in some cases equivalent to that signal+ masker trials. On immediately preceding trial blocks for which there were no intervening maskers, performance for these signals was perfect. The results indicate that informational maskers can have a significant effect on signal threshold, both within and across trials.

Trainee reporting of computed tomography examinations: do they make mistakes and does it matter?

AIM: To determine the accuracy of trainees reporting computed tomography (CT) examinations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Over a 6-month period a single consultant reviewed all the CT examinations reported by registrars in one radiology department. After recording a provisional registrar report each examination was jointly reviewed by the consultant and registrar. The consultant's opinion was regarded as the gold standard. Data collected included: the error rate, whether an error was significant, leading to a change in patient management, and whether the mistake was a false-negative or positive. RESULTS: Three hundred and thirty-one patients were included in the study. There was an overall error rate of 21.5%. A significant error leading to a change in management was made in 10% of reports, and a significant error that did not lead to a change in management was made in 9.3%; 2.1% of reports had insignificant errors; and 69% of errors were false-negatives. CONCLUSION: Registrars make a significant number of errors affecting patient management when reporting CT and ideally all examinations should be reviewed by a consultant.

Interlanguage Errors in English Textbooks for Junior High School Students in Surakarta

The present study deals with the English textbooks for Junior High School students. It is worth studying because they are marked with a significant number of errors both in the area of vocabulary and grammar. This research is to find proof that the English used is still at the level of interlanguage (IL). Theories on Error Analysis (EA) and Interlanguage (IL) have been used to analyze the data which consist of erroneous sentences taken from the reading texts only. The result reveals that the English used in the textbooks is still at the level of IL. The features of systematicity, permeability, and fossilization of an interlanguage also existed in it.

The Transfusion Medicine Tutor: Methods and Results from the Development of an Interactive Learning Environment for Teaching Problem-Solving Skills

Investigations of students and practicing medical technologists indicate that both groups make significant numbers of errors on tasks such as antibody identification. One potential solution to help with this problem is to provide access to a computerized learning environment in which users can get exposure to a larger and much broader set of problems than would otherwise be possible. This paper describes such a learning environment, the Transfusion Medicine Tutor, and discusses the ways in which it supports guided discovery learning.

Validity of Visually Recorded Temporal-Distance Measures at Selected Walking Velocities for Gait Analysis

The purpose of this study was to examine the validity of measures of temporal distance in a clinical analysis of gait. Data were collected from 15 normal subjects by one examiner. Equipment consisted of a 10-meter laminated walking track, dictaphone, metronome, and ink markers. The number of errors at four walking speeds were examined using a standardized analysis of gait. Analysis of variance showed a significant number of errors between the first and last halves of the measurement distance and among the four walking velocities. Post hoc analysis using the Scheffé test indicated significant differences in the mean number of errors at the velocities of 60 and 75 versus 25 and 40 m.min-1. An F test for simple effects indicated a significant number of errors occurred during the second half of the measured distance and at walking velocities of 60 and 75 m.min-1. These results indicate that the gait analysis is valid for measurements taken at all of the walking velocities only when recorded over a three-meter distance and only at the velocities of 25 and 40 m.min-1 over a six-meter distance.

Visual Perspective-Taking Skills in Children

The present study evaluated the effects of stimulus complexity and rule usage on a visual perspective-taking task. Preschoolers, first, third, and fifth graders, and adults were shown arrays of dolls and performed a series of perspective-taking tasks. Errors decreased with age, and more errors occurred with the more complex visual arrays. A significant number of errors were made in self-view trials, especially by the preschoolers, showing that the ability to relate an array to a pictorial representation of it is not perfect. A conditional probability analysis showed that most egocentric errors were not due to an inability to relate the array to pictorial representations, but rather to a lack of mastery of Flavell's different positions--different views rule. When the array was covered, however, even first graders showed almost perfect mastery of this rule. There were also task effects on the use of Flavell's same position--same view rule: children performed better for a task involving self and other than for 2 others. Response latencies and effects for the observer's relative position provided evidence for a new rule: opposite positions--opposite views. In addition, front and back views of the dolls were significantly easier than the side views, which suggests a role of labeling or stimulus-discrimination skills.

Detection and Correction of House Staff Error in Physical Diagnosis

A significant number of errors in physical examination can be detected when house staff are observed by attending physicians. In this study, observation of residents and interns showed a total error of 13.1% and 15.6%, respectively, with incorrect findings of 3.3% and 4.9% and omitted findings of 9.8% and 10.7%, respectively. Approximately two thirds of all patients examined had at least one error noted. A method was instituted for detecting and correcting these errors that can be integrated into daily attending rounds. Using this method, a statistically significant decrease in the number of errors was shown. The method used emphasizes the physical examination pertinent to the patient's main problem, consumes very little rounding time, and is well received by both attending physicians and house officers.

A distractive effect of peripheral attention on foveal trigram recognition.

The recognizability of tachistoscopically presented foveal trigrams was investigated as a function of paying attention, or not paying attention, to simultaneously exposed parafoveal trigrams. The same set of stimuli was presented in both conditions. All six observers made a significant number of errors at 50 ms stimulus duration in the attentive condition. This occurred even though they could not correctly report the parafoveal stimulus. Performance reached 95% correct at 200 ms stimulus duration, just when parafoveal trigrams were occasionally identified. At 50 ms stimulus duration in the attentive condition, errors were more marked for non-wordlike center trigrams. When the parafoveal trigram was non-wordlike, its distractive effect was greater than when it was wordlike. Neither distance nor position of the parafoveal trigrams were significant factors. The distractive effect of peripheral attention on recognition of letter stimuli suggests that information from parafoveal stimuli is available through attention. The results do not suggest that during a short exposure parafoveal information triggers attention: they rather indicate that conscious attention determines the processing of parafoveal stimuli.

On threshold decoding of cyclic codes

Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) codes are very powerful random error-correcting techniques. We have investigated whether all BCH codes can be L -step orthogonalized, and have found a specific class of double error-correcting BCH codes which cannot be L -step orthogonalized. We show further that all BCH codes with length q m − 1, where q is a power of any prime p(q = p 8 ), and all Euclidean geometry codes, can be one-step decoded by parity checks to correct a significant number of errors. These parity vectors need not be orthogonal to each other. For the general case, we have not been able to determine whether they can or cannot be decoded to their minimum distances by such a technique. The above codes decoded by nonorthogonal parity checks in the manner given herein are comparable to projective geometry codes, decoded by Rudolph's method.

HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION OF SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPS

Abstract The experimentally observed crystallization of supercooled water near −40C is examined in terms of the theory of homogeneous nucleation. The thermodynamic and molecular-kinetic nature, of the nucleation process is outlined to show why supercooling in natural clouds can occur so frequently. Past efforts to explain the −40C transition are examined critically, and are found to contain a number of significant errors. Because the theoretical nucleation rates are extremely sensitive to the numerical value of the specific surface free energy of a water-ice interface, particular attention is devoted to the refinement of previous estimates of this parameter. It is shown that both Krastanow's and Mason's estimates were inaccurate, and that in the latter's approach, neglect of the distortion energy of the surface layer of ice led to a marked under-estimate of the nucleation efficiency which was concealed by the effects of several counteracting errors. Difficulties lying in the way of a direct calculation of...