Sialodacryoadenitis Virus Research Articles

ATPase Valosin-Containing Protein (VCP) Is Involved During the Replication and Egress of Sialodacryoadenitis Virus (SDAV) in Neurons.

Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) has been identified as the etiological agent responsible for the respiratory system and salivary gland infections in rats. The existing literature on SDAV infections is insufficient to address the topic adequately, particularly in relation to the central nervous system. In order to ascertain how SDAV gains access to neuronal cells and subsequently exits, our attention was focused on the small molecule valosin-containing protein (VCP), which is an ATPase. VCP is acknowledged for its function in the ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation of proteins, including those of viral origin. To ascertain the potential influence of VCP on SDAV replication and egress, high-content screening was employed to determine the viral titer and protein content. Western blot analysis was employed to ascertain the relative expression of VCP. Real-time imaging of SDAV-infected cells and confocal imaging for qualitative morphological analysis were conducted. The Eeyarestatin I (EerI) inhibitor was employed to disrupt VCP involvement in the endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation pathway (ERAD) in both pre- and post-incubation systems, with concentrations of 5 μM/mL and 25 μM/mL, respectively. We demonstrated for the first time that SDAV productively replicates in cultured primary neurons. VCP expression is markedly elevated during SDAV infection. The application of 5 μM/mL EerI in the post-treatment system yielded a statistically significant inhibition of the SDAV yield. It is likely that this modulates the efficacy of virion assembly by arresting viral proteins in the submembrane area.

Development and evaluation of an indirect ELISA for detecting sialodacryoadenitis virus antibodies in laboratory rats

Development and evaluation of an indirect ELISA for detecting sialodacryoadenitis virus antibodies in laboratory rats

Review of Coronavirus in Rats: A Potential Zoonotic Threat

The current COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of the Coronaviridae family as a threat to public health in the emergence of a deadly zoonotic disease. Rats are the possible primary host of the infection as they are highly populated in urban areas, creating a significant epidemic risk. The tendency of coronaviruses (CoVs) to overcome species barriers and adapt to hosts typically found close to humans emphasised the need for further study on coronavirus infection. Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) and Parker’s rat coronavirus (PRC) are the most commonly isolated pathogens for coronavirus infections in the laboratory and wild rats. They are contagious and could be transmitted to susceptible rats by direct contact, fomites, or aerosol. Coronavirus genera include Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus, which are restricted to bats and other mammalian hosts, while the Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus are restricted to birds. All known rat coronaviruses are members of the beta genus. Betacoronavirus are divided into five subgenera, i.e., Embecovirus, Hibecovirus, Merbecovirus, Nobecovirus, and Sarbecovirus. All rat coronaviruses are categorised as the Embecovirus subgenus. Most studies have proven that rat coronaviruses are responsible for hepatitis, enteritis, reproductive problems, and respiratory and salivary gland infections, including episcleritis, and dacryoadenitis. The scant literature data, mostly comprising publications from the last century, does not adequately explain the etiopathology of SDAV and PRC infections. This review provides an overview of the knowledge on the characteristics, transmission, clinical signs, pathology, and diagnosis of rat coronaviruses, besides better understanding their zoonotic potentials.

Modeling pandemic to endemic patterns of SARS-CoV-2 transmission using parameters estimated from animal model data.

The contours of endemic coronaviral disease in humans and other animals are shaped by the tendency of coronaviruses to generate new variants superimposed upon nonsterilizing immunity. Consequently, patterns of coronaviral reinfection in animals can inform the emerging endemic state of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. We generated controlled reinfection data after high and low risk natural exposure or heterologous vaccination to sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) in rats. Using deterministic compartmental models, we utilized in vivo estimates from these experiments to model the combined effects of variable transmission rates, variable duration of immunity, successive waves of variants, and vaccination on patterns of viral transmission. Using rat experiment-derived estimates, an endemic state achieved by natural infection alone occurred after a median of 724 days with approximately 41.3% of the population susceptible to reinfection. After accounting for translationally altered parameters between rat-derived data and human SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and after introducing vaccination, we arrived at a median time to endemic stability of 1437 (IQR = 749.25) days with a median 15.4% of the population remaining susceptible. We extended the models to introduce successive variants with increasing transmissibility and included the effect of varying duration of immunity. As seen with endemic coronaviral infections in other animals, transmission states are altered by introduction of new variants, even with vaccination. However, vaccination combined with natural immunity maintains a lower prevalence of infection than natural infection alone and provides greater resilience against the effects of transmissible variants.

Modeling SARS-CoV-2 propagation using rat coronavirus-associated shedding and transmission.

At present, global immunity to SARS-CoV-2 resides within a heterogeneous combination of susceptible, naturally infected and vaccinated individuals. The extent to which viral shedding and transmission occurs on re-exposure to SARS-CoV-2 is an important determinant of the rate at which COVID-19 achieves endemic stability. We used Sialodacryoadenitis Virus (SDAV) in rats to model the extent to which immune protection afforded by prior natural infection via high risk (inoculation; direct contact) or low risk (fomite) exposure, or by vaccination, influenced viral shedding and transmission on re-exposure. On initial infection, we confirmed that amount, duration and consistency of viral shedding, and seroconversion rates were correlated with exposure risk. Animals were reinfected after 3.7-5.5 months using the same exposure paradigm. 59% of seropositive animals shed virus, although at lower amounts. Previously exposed seropositive reinfected animals were able to transmit virus to 25% of naive recipient rats after 24-hour exposure by direct contact. Rats vaccinated intranasally with a related virus (Parker's Rat Coronavirus) were able to transmit SDAV to only 4.7% of naive animals after a 7-day direct contact exposure, despite comparable viral shedding. Cycle threshold values associated with transmission in both groups ranged from 29-36 cycles. Observed shedding was not a prerequisite for transmission. Results indicate that low-level shedding in both naturally infected and vaccinated seropositive animals can propagate infection in susceptible individuals. Extrapolated to COVID-19, our results suggest that continued propagation of SARS-CoV-2 by seropositive previously infected or vaccinated individuals is possible.

SDAV, the Rat Coronavirus-How Much Do We Know about It in the Light of Potential Zoonoses.

Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) is known to be an etiological agent, causing infections in laboratory rats. Until now, its role has only been considered in studies on respiratory and salivary gland infections. The scant literature data, consisting mainly of papers from the last century, do not sufficiently address the topic of SDAV infections. The ongoing pandemic has demonstrated, once again, the role of the Coronaviridae family as extremely dangerous etiological agents of human zoonoses. The ability of coronaviruses to cross the species barrier and change to hosts commonly found in close proximity to humans highlights the need to characterize SDAV infections. The main host of the infection is the rat, as mentioned above. Rats inhabit large urban agglomerations, carrying a vast epidemic threat. Of the 2277 existing rodent species, 217 are reservoirs for 66 zoonotic diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. This review provides insight into the current state of knowledge of SDAV characteristics and its likely zoonotic potential.

Simultaneous serodetection of major rat infectious pathogens by a multiplex immunochromatographic assay.

Rapid and simple serologic tests that require only a small amount of blood without the euthanization of animals are valuable for microbial control in colonies of laboratory animals. In this study, we developed a multiplex immunochromatographic assay (ICA) for detection of antibodies to Sendai virus (also known as hemagglutinating virus of Japan), hantavirus, and sialodacryoadenitis virus, which are causative agents of major infectious diseases in rats. For this assay, an ICA strip was placed into a microtube containing 150 µl PBS and either 0.75 µl of rat serum or 1.5 µl of whole blood. Binding antibodies were visualized by using anti-rat IgG antibody-conjugated colloidal gold. Under these conditions, the multiplex ICA simultaneously and specifically detected antibodies to multiple antigens. Positive serum samples for each infectious disease were used to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the multiplex ICA. The sensitivities of the multiplex ICA for Sendai virus, hantavirus, and sialodacryoadenitis virus were 100%, 100%, and 81%, respectively. No nonspecific reactions were observed in any of the 52 positive sera against heterologous antigens. In addition, 10 samples of uninfected sera did not show any bands except for the control line. These observations indicate high specificity of the multiplex ICA. Moreover, the multiplex ICA could be applied to diluted blood. These results indicate that the multiplex ICA is appropriate for rapid and simple serological testing of laboratory rats.

Microbiological contaminations of laboratory mice and rats in conventional facilities in Argentina

Routine microbiological monitoring of rodent colonies in animal facilities is essential to evaluate the health status of the animals used in research studies. In the present study, animals were examined for the presence of selected microbial infections. In order to determine the contamination rates of mice and rats in Argentina, animals from 102 conventional facilities were monitored from 2012 to 2016. The most frequent bacteria isolated were Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus spp. The common parasites identified were Syphacia spp. and Tritrichomonas spp. Serological assays demonstrated the highest prevalence for Mouse hepatitis virus in mice and Sialodacryoadenitis virus in rats. The results indicate that there is a high incidence of infections, so it is suggested that an efficient management system and effective sanitary barriers should be implemented in conventional facilities in Argentina in order to improve sanitary standards.

Sero-Prevalence of Rodent Pathogens in India

Health monitoring is an integral part of laboratory animal quality standards. However, current or past prevalence data as well as regulatory requirements dictate the frequency, type and the expanse of health monitoring. In an effort to understand the prevalence of rodent pathogens in India, a preliminary study was carried out by sero-epidemiology. Sera samples obtained from 26 public and private animal facilities were analyzed for the presence of antibodies against minute virus of mice (MVM), ectromelia virus (ECTV), lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), Sendai virus (SeV), and Mycoplasma pulmonis in mice, and SeV, rat parvo virus (RPV), Kilham’s rat virus (KRV) and sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) in rats, by sandwich ELISA. It was observed that MHV was the most prevalent agent followed by Mycoplasma pulmonis and MVM in mice, and SDAV followed by RPV were prevalent in rats. On the other hand, none of the samples were positive for ECTV in mice, or SeV or KRV in rats. Multiple infections were common in both mice and rats. The incidence of MHV and Mycoplasma pulmonis was higher in facilities maintained by public organizations than in vivaria of private organizations, although the difference was not statistically different. On the other hand the prevalence of rodent pathogens was significantly higher in the northern part of India than in the South. These studies form the groundwork for detailed sero-prevalence studies which should further lay the foundations for country-specific guidelines for health monitoring of laboratory animals.

Effect of sialodacryoadenitis virus infection on axonal regeneration

The effect of sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) infection on axonal regeneration and functional recovery was investigated in male Lewis rats. Animals underwent unilateral tibial nerve transection, immediate repair, and treatment with either FK506 (treated) or control vehicle (untreated). Serial walking track analyses were performed to assess functional recovery. Nerves were harvested for morphometric analysis on postoperative day 18 after an SDAV outbreak occurred that affected the 12 experimental animals. Histomorphometry and walking track data were compared against 36 historical controls. Rats infected with SDAV demonstrated severely impaired axonal regeneration and diminished functional recovery. Total fiber counts, nerve density, and percent neural tissue were all significantly reduced in infected animals (P < 0.05). Active SDAV infection severely impaired nerve regeneration and negated the positive effect of FK506 on nerve regeneration in rats. Immunosuppressive risks must be weighed carefully against the potential neuroregenerative benefits in the treatment of peripheral nerve injuries. © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2011.

Synthesis and inhibitory activity of sialic acid derivatives targeted at viral sialate- O-acetylesterases

A series of sialosides modified at the 4- and 9-hydroxy group were synthesised and tested for inhibition of the viral haemagglutinin-esterase activity from various Orthomyxoviruses and Coronaviruses. While no inhibition of the sialate-4- O-acetylesterases from mouse hepatitis virus strain S or sialodacryoadenitis virus was found, a 9- O-methyl derivative displayed inhibitory activity against recombinant sialate-9- O-acetylesterase from influenza C virus.

Simultaneous Detection of Antibodies to Mouse Hepatitis Virus Recombinant Structural Proteins by a Microsphere-Based Multiplex Fluorescence Immunoassay

We describe a new microsphere-based multiplex fluorescent immunoassay (MFI) using recombinant mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) proteins to detect antibodies to coronaviruses in mouse and rat sera. All the recombinant proteins, including nucleocapsid (N) and 3 subunits of spike protein, S1, S2, and Smid, showed positive reactivity in MFI with mouse antisera to 4 MHV strains (MHV-S, -A59, -JHM, and -Nu67) and rat antiserum to a strain of sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV-681). The MFI was evaluated for its diagnostic power, with panels of mouse sera classified as positive or negative for anti-MHV antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using MHV virion antigen and indirect fluorescent antibody assay. The reactivities of 236 naturally infected mouse sera were examined; 227 samples were positive by MFI using S2 antigen (96% sensitivity), and 208 samples were positive using N antigen (88% sensitivity). Based on the assessment by MFI using the S2 and N antigens, only 3 serum samples showed double-negative results, indicating a false-negative rate of 1.3%. In 126 uninfected mouse sera, including 34 ELISA false-positive sera, only 7 samples showed false-positive results by MFI using either the S2 or N antigen (94% specificity). Similarly, the S2 and N antigen-based MFI was 98% sensitive and 100% specific in detecting anticoronavirus antibodies in rat sera. Thus, this MFI-based serologic assay using the S2 and N antigens promises to be a reliable diagnostic method, representing a highly sensitive and specific alternative to traditional ELISA for detection of coronavirus infections in laboratory mouse and rat colonies.

Rat respiratory coronavirus infection: replication in airway and alveolar epithelial cells and the innate immune response

The rat coronavirus sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) causes respiratory infection and provides a system for investigating respiratory coronaviruses in a natural host. A viral suspension in the form of a microspray aerosol was delivered by intratracheal instillation into the distal lung of 6-8-week-old Fischer 344 rats. SDAV inoculation produced a 7 % body weight loss over a 5 day period that was followed by recovery over the next 7 days. SDAV caused focal lesions in the lung, which were most severe on day 4 post-inoculation (p.i.). Immunofluorescent staining showed that four cell types supported SDAV virus replication in the lower respiratory tract, namely Clara cells, ciliated cells in the bronchial airway and alveolar type I and type II cells in the lung parenchyma. In bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) a neutrophil influx increased the population of neutrophils to 45 % compared with 6 % of the cells in control samples on day 2 after mock inoculation. Virus infection induced an increase in surfactant protein SP-D levels in BALF of infected rats on days 4 and 8 p.i. that subsided by day 12. The concentrations of chemokines MCP-1, LIX and CINC-1 in BALF increased on day 4 p.i., but returned to control levels by day 8. Intratracheal instillation of rats with SDAV coronavirus caused an acute, self-limited infection that is a useful model for studying the early events of the innate immune response to respiratory coronavirus infections in lungs of the natural virus host.

Rat coronaviruses infect rat alveolar type I epithelial cells and induce expression of CXC chemokines

We analyzed the ability of two rat coronavirus (RCoV) strains, sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) and Parker's RCoV (RCoV-P), to infect rat alveolar type I cells and induce chemokine expression. Primary rat alveolar type II cells were transdifferentiated into the type I cell phenotype. Type I cells were productively infected with SDAV and RCoV-P, and both live virus and UV-inactivated virus induced mRNA and protein expression of three CXC chemokines: CINC-2, CINC-3, and LIX, which are neutrophil chemoattractants. Dual immunolabeling of type I cells for viral antigen and CXC chemokines showed that chemokines were expressed primarily by uninfected cells. Virus-induced chemokine expression was reduced by the IL-1 receptor antagonist, suggesting that IL-1 produced by infected cells induces uninfected cells to express chemokines. Primary cultures of alveolar epithelial cells are an important model for the early events in viral infection that lead to pulmonary inflammation.

Common RNA replication signals exist among group 2 coronaviruses: evidence for in vivo recombination between animal and human coronavius molecules

5′ and 3′ UTR sequences on the coronavirus genome are known to carry cis-acting elements for DI RNA replication and presumably also virus genome replication. 5′ UTR-adjacent coding sequences are also thought to harbor cis-acting elements. Here we have determined the 5′ UTR and adjacent 289-nt sequences, and 3′ UTR sequences, for six group 2 coronaviruses and have compared them to each other and to three previously reported group 2 members. Extensive regions of highly similar UTR sequences were found but small regions of divergence were also found indicating group 2 coronaviruses could be subdivided into those that are bovine coronavirus (BCoV)-like (BCoV, human respiratory coronavirus-OC43, human enteric coronavirus, porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus, and equine coronavirus) and those that are murine hepatitis virus (MHV)-like (A59, 2, and JHM strains of MHV, puffinosis virus, and rat sialodacryoadenitis virus). The 3′ UTRs of BCoV and MHV have been previously shown to be interchangeable. Here, a reporter-containing BCoV DI RNA was shown to be replicated by all five BCoV-like helper viruses and by MHV-H2 (a human cell-adapted MHV strain), a representative of the MHV-like subgroup, demonstrating group 2 common 5′ and 3′ replication signaling elements. BCoV DI RNA, furthermore, acquired the leader of HCoV-OC43 by leader switching, demonstrating for the first time in vivo recombination between animal and human coronavirus molecules. These results indicate that common replication signaling elements exist among group 2 coronaviruses despite a two-cluster pattern within the group and imply there could exist a high potential for recombination among group members.

Recombinant viral sialate-O-acetylesterases.

Viral O-acetylesterases were first identified in several viruses, including influenza C viruses and coronaviruses. These enzymes are capable of removing cellular receptors from the surface of target cells. Hence they are also known as “receptor destroying” enzymes. We have cloned and expressed several recombinant viral O-acetylesterases. These enzymes were secreted from Sf9 insect cells as chimeric proteins fused to eGFP. A purification scheme to isolate the recombinant O-acetylesterase of influenza C virus was developed. The recombinant enzymes derived from influenza C viruses specifically hydrolyze 9-O-acetylated sialic acids, while that of sialodacryoadenitis virus, a rat coronavirus related to mouse hepatitis virus, is specific for 4-O-acetylated sialic acid. The recombinant esterases were shown to specifically de-O-acetylate sialic acids on glycoconjugates. We have also expressed esterase knockout proteins of the influenza C virus hemagglutinin-esterase. The recombinant viral proteins can be used to unambiguously identify O-acetylated acids in a variety of assays. Published in 2004..

Primary structure of the sialodacryoadenitis virus genome: sequence of the structural-protein region and its application for differential diagnosis.

Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) is a coronavirus that is commonly found in laboratory rats and that causes sialodacryoadenitis and respiratory illness. We cloned and sequenced the 3' terminal 9.8 kb of the genomic RNA and analyzed the structure of the viral genome. As with mouse hepatitis coronaviruses (MHVs), the SDAV genome was able to code for a spike protein, a small membrane protein, a membrane-associated protein, and a nucleocapsid protein. In addition, the hemagglutinin-esterase gene capable of encoding a protein of 439 amino acids (aa) was identified. The putative functional site for acetylesterase activity was present in the HE protein as Phe-Gly-Asp-Ser (FGDS), suggesting that the SDAV HE protein might have retained the esterase activity. Immediately upstream of the HE gene and downstream of the polymerase 1b gene, the NS2 nonstructural-protein gene was identified with a coding capacity of 274 aa. A motif of UCUAAAC was identified as a potential transcription signal for subgenomic mRNA synthesis. Large insertions of 172, 127, and 44 aa were detected in the N-terminal half of the predicted S protein of SDAV when its sequence was compared to the sequences of MHV 2, MHV JHM, and MHV A59, respectively. The sequence information on the SDAV S-protein gene was applied to a differential diagnostic PCR to detect and distinguish the rat coronavirus from mouse coronaviruses. This is the first report on the comprehensive genetic information of any rat coronavirus.

Effect of sialodacryoadenitis virus exposure on acinar epithelial cells from the rat lacrimal gland

Sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), a RNA coronavirus, in-duces degenerative, necrotic and atrophic alterations in acinar epithelial cells of the rat lacrimal gland. To begin to explore the underlying mechanism(s) of this viral effect, we sought in the present study to: (i) determine whether SDAV invades and replicates in lacrimal gland acinar cells in vitro; and (2) assess whether short-term SDAV challenge interferes with the viability or function of acinar cells in vitro. For comparison we also evaluated the rela-tive infectivity of SDAV in acinar epithelial cells from lacrimal, submandib-ular and parotid glands, given that salivary tissues are known to be highly susceptible to SDAV infection in vivo. Acinar epithelial cells from lacrimal, submandibular or parotid glands were isolated from male rats, exposed briefly to SDAV or control cell antigen and then cultured for four, eight or twelve days. At experimental termination, SDAV titers in both media and sonicated cell extracts were evaluated by plaque assay titration on mouse L2 cell monolayers. To evaluate functional aspects of lacrimal gland acinar cells, SDAV-infected cells were incubated in the presence or absence of dihydrotestosterone and culture media were analyzed by RIA to measure the extent of the androgen-induced increase in secretory component (SC) pro-duction. Our results showed that: (i) SDAV invades and replicates in lacri-mal gland acinar cells. Viral challenge resulted in a significant, time-depen-dent increase in SDAV titers, that were primarily cell-associated and greatly exceeded amounts contained in the original inoculum; (2) SDAV infection did not compromise lacrimal acinar cell viability or prevent the cellular SC response to androgens. Viral presence, though, did often attenuate the mag-nitude of this hormone action; and (3) SDAV infects salivary acinar cells, but the kinetics and magnitude of viral replication in lacrimal, submandibu-lar and parotid cells showed considerable variations. These findings demon-strate that SDAV invades and replicates in acinar epithelial cells from lacri-mal and salivary glands. The resulting release of infectious progeny may play a role in the SDAV-induced pathology of exocrine tissues in vivo.

Growth characteristics and protein profiles of prototype and wild-type rat coronavirus isolates grown in a cloned subline of mouse fibroblasts (L2p.176 cells)

Rat coronaviruses (RCVs) infect laboratory rats and confound biomedical research results. In vitro systems developed so far have limited the growth in knowledge about RCVs by not permitting generation of plaque-cloned virus stocks, reliable isolation of RCVs from rat tissues, or growth of high titered stocks of all isolates. Due to the fact that less than 20% of L2(Percy) cells were becoming infected, sublines were produced and selected for maximal growth of RCVs. Screening of 238 cell sublines yielded L2p.176 cells which were highly susceptible to all RCVs tested; however, susceptibility declined after 30 passages in vitro. Low-passaged L2p.176 cells were used to isolate virus from natural outbreaks and to propagate individual RCV plaques into high titered stocks. Proteins from six RCV isolates were immunoblotted using polyclonal rat and mouse antibodies to sialodacryoadenitis virus and polyclonal monospecific rabbit and goat antibodies against the peplomer (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV). Proteins of two prototype, one Japanese and three wild type RCVs were examined and found to be similar to those of MHV, although the exact sizes and ratios of protein forms were unique for most RCV isolats. This study reports the development of a continuous cell line which reliably supports RCVs opening an opportunity for further in vivo studies of the biology of these agents. As a first step in the characterization of RCVs, we have shown that RCV proteins are very similar to those of MHV.

Replication of rat coronaviruses in intestinal cell line, RCN-9, derived from F344 rats.

To examine the susceptibility of the epithelial cell line to rat coronavirus (RCV), we inoculated sialodacryoadenitis virus and Parker's RCV into five cell lines; JTC-19, rat L2, LLC, RCN-9 and LBC cells originating in the lungs, intestines and mammary tumors of rodents. Both RCVs were replicated in LBC and RCN-9 cells, but not in the others. The infectivity titers of both RCVs grown in RCN-9 cells were significantly higher than those in LBC cells in every passage (2.5-3.9 log rate). Both RCVs replicated in LBC cells showed higher tropism to RCN-9 cells than to LBC cells, suggesting that RCN-9 cells are more suitable for the replication of RCVs than LBC cells. The RCN-9 cell line would be useful for the investigation of RCV infection in rodents.