Short-circuit Failure Research Articles

Study on the thermal runaway behavior and mechanism of 18650 lithium-ion battery induced by external short circuit

This study investigated the external short circuit (ESC) characteristics of 18650-type NCM lithium-ion batteries under different states of charge (SOC) and short-circuit currents. The research includes the macroscopic electro-thermal characteristics, microscopic morphology, structural damage, and internal damage evolution mechanism of short-circuited batteries. The tests provided an in-depth study of external short circuit (ESC) failure and thermal runaway (TR) behavioral characteristics. The results indicate that all the temperature changes of the short-circuit batteries were found to be in an upward and then downward trend. The surface temperature rise rate of batteries with low SOC were faster, and the maximum surface temperature rise of batteries with high SOC were higher. And with the increase of short-circuit current rate, the temperature rise gradually increased. In particular, thermal runaway occurred at 25C and the maximum temperature exceeds 500 °C. Different SOC batteries showed different degree of voltage fluctuation. The voltage curve of low SOC batteries showed “falling-rising-falling” trend with a brief platform. High SOC batteries formed a distinct voltage platform near 2.75 V. As the short-circuit current increased, the voltage platform shortened, followed by the rapid drop to zero. X-ray CT and SEM test results showed that the deformation of the battery jelly roll was mainly due to the separator shrinkage and tearing. Major changes occurred in the cathode and separator, including secondary particle rupture and irreversible pore blockage in the separator. The damage mechanism of ESC and its evolution are revealed. The results of this study can provide support for the research work on the thermal safety design of lithium batteries.

Preferred crystal plane electrodeposition of aluminum anode with high lattice-matching for long-life aluminum batteries

Aluminum batteries have become the most attractive next-generation energy storage battery due to their advantages of high safety, high abundance, and low cost. However, the dendrite problem associated with inhomogeneous electrodeposition during cycling leads to low Coulombic efficiency and rapid short-circuit failure of the aluminum metal anode, which severely hampers the cycling stability of aluminum battery. Here we show an aluminum anode material that achieves high lattice matching between the substrate and the deposit, allowing the aluminum deposits to maintain preferred crystal plane growth on the substrate surface. It not only reduces the nucleation barrier of aluminum and decreases electrode polarization, but also enables uniform deposition of aluminum, improving the cycling stability of aluminum batteries. Aluminum anode with (111) preferred crystal plane can stably 25000 cycles at the current density of 5 A·g−1, with a capacity retention rate of over 80%.

Interfacial Domino Effect Triggered by β-Alanine Cations Realized Highly Reversible Zinc-Metal Anodes.

Realizing durative dense, dendrite-free, and no by-product deposition configuration on Zn anodes is crucial to solving the short circuit and premature failure of batteries, which is simultaneously determined by the Zn interface chemistry, electro-reduction kinetics, mass transfer process, and their interaction. Herein, this work unmasks a domino effect of the β-alanine cations (Ala+) within the hydrogel matrix, which effectively triggers the subsequent electrostatic shielding and beneficial knock-on effects via the specifical adsorption earliest event on the Zn anode surface. The electrostatic shielding effect regulates the crystallographic energetic preference of Zn deposits and retards fast electro-reduction kinetics, thereby steering stacked stockier block morphology and realizing crystallographic optimization. Meanwhile, the mass transfer rate of Zn2+ ions was accelerated via the SO4 2- anion immobilized caused by Ala+ in bulk electrolyte, finally bringing the balance between electroreduction kinetics and mass transfer process, which enables dendrite-free Zn deposition behavior. Concomitantly, the interfacial adsorbed Ala+ cations facilitate the electrochemical reduction of interfacial SO4 2- anions to form the inorganic-organic hybrid solid electrolyte interphase layer. The above domino effects immensely improve the utilization efficiency of Zn anodes and long-term stability, as demonstrated by the 12 times longer life of Zn||Zn cells (3650 h) and ultrahigh Coulombic efficiency (99.4 %).

Interfacial Domino Effect Triggered by β‐Alanine Cations Realized Highly Reversible Zinc‐Metal Anodes

AbstractRealizing durative dense, dendrite‐free, and no by‐product deposition configuration on Zn anodes is crucial to solving the short circuit and premature failure of batteries, which is simultaneously determined by the Zn interface chemistry, electro‐reduction kinetics, mass transfer process, and their interaction. Herein, this work unmasks a domino effect of the β‐alanine cations (Ala+) within the hydrogel matrix, which effectively triggers the subsequent electrostatic shielding and beneficial knock‐on effects via the specifical adsorption earliest event on the Zn anode surface. The electrostatic shielding effect regulates the crystallographic energetic preference of Zn deposits and retards fast electro‐reduction kinetics, thereby steering stacked stockier block morphology and realizing crystallographic optimization. Meanwhile, the mass transfer rate of Zn2+ ions was accelerated via the SO42− anion immobilized caused by Ala+ in bulk electrolyte, finally bringing the balance between electroreduction kinetics and mass transfer process, which enables dendrite‐free Zn deposition behavior. Concomitantly, the interfacial adsorbed Ala+ cations facilitate the electrochemical reduction of interfacial SO42− anions to form the inorganic‐organic hybrid solid electrolyte interphase layer. The above domino effects immensely improve the utilization efficiency of Zn anodes and long‐term stability, as demonstrated by the 12 times longer life of Zn||Zn cells (3650 h) and ultrahigh Coulombic efficiency (99.4 %).

Investigation of Li accumulations in LLZO based solid state batteries via operando neutron imaging and ex-situ correlative structural and chemical analysis

In this study, we present a comprehensive analysis of lithium dendrite formation in half-cells with lithium garnet-type solid-state electrolyte Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) utilizing operando neutron imaging and subsequent ex-situ correlative structural and chemical analysis. The operando experiment involves cycling a solid-state symmetric half-cell (Li|LLZO|Li) until short-circuit failure, all while being irradiated with neutrons, providing invaluable insights into the dynamic processes within the symmetric half-cell. Post-mortem investigations were carried out, comprising two techniques: 1) secondary electron imaging for structural analysis and 2) secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) for chemical mapping. This multifaceted approach creates complementary datasets, bridging the gap between neutron radiography, known for its quantitative transmission capabilities, and high-resolution, high-sensitivity structural and chemical imaging via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and SIMS.Central to our investigation is the design and development of an operando neutron imaging approach, enabling the study of lithium penetration during the electrochemical cycling. Furthermore, structural, and chemical analyses through correlative SEM/SIMS unveil various morphologies of lithium accumulations. Specifically, regions with dense LLZO reveal intergranular lithium accumulations, while low-density areas within the LLZO pellet, such as pores and cracks, exhibit distinct types of lithium accumulations (e.g. whiskers).Notably, neutron analysis reveals an accumulation of lithium in selected regions, with a maximum increase of up to 3.6 vol.-%. These regions primarily correspond to the roughened LLZO/Li interface, as observed through neutron imaging, although the SEM/SIMS analysis unequivocally confirms the presence of lithium dendrites (with sizes at or below the resolution limit of neutron imaging) also within the bulk of LLZO.This work offers a comprehensive examination of the intricate dynamics of lithium dendrite formation and behaviour in LLZO-based solid-state half-cells, emphasizing the potential of operando techniques to advance our understanding of critical issues (e.g. degradation, dendrite formation, …) in battery research.

Analysis of the influence and mechanism of the pollution condensation environment on the electrochemical migration behaviour of printed circuit board with immersion silver

A refrigeration device was developed to induce condensation on printed circuit board with immersion silver (PCB-ImAg). Results show that in a condensation environment with low relative humidity, an electrolyte film can still be formed that allows conduction between the two poles of PCB-ImAg, allowing the thermodynamic conditions for electrochemical migration (ECM) to be reached and creating the risk of short-circuit failure. Under high relative humidity, the main body of ions that underwent ECM on the surface of PCB-ImAg was Cu2+ and as the relative humidity of the environment increases, the short-circuit failure time shortens, and the initial current density increases.

The advantages and short circuit characteristics of SiC MOSFETs

SiC MOSFETs have exhibited considerable benefits in high-frequency, high-voltage, and high-temperature power electronics applications with outstanding material attributes as a result of the rapid advancement of power electronics technology. SiC MOSFETs slower short-circuit tolerance and faster switching rates provide new issues for the short-circuit prevention technology. In the opening section of the study, Si and SiC MOSFETs are compared and evaluated using various models and parametric factors. It has been demonstrated that SiC MOSFETs outperform Si MOSFETs in a variety of conditions and applications. The many SiC MOSFET short-circuit failure types as well as their underlying theories are initially explained in the papers main body. In addition, it examines the fundamentals of short-circuit test procedures and SiC MOSFET test circuits. The issues and limitations of the currently available SiC MOSFET short-circuit protection technology are then explored, along with factors impacting the short-circuit of SiC MOSFETs that are thoroughly examined. Lastly, the SiC MOSFET short-circuit protection technology development trend is forecasted, and potential future areas for improvement and innovation are considered. SiC MOSFET short-circuit protection technology will be enhanced and optimized to satisfy the needs of efficient and dependable power electronic systems as technology advances and application requirements expand.

Assessment of the complete chain evolution process of LIBs from micro internal short circuit failure to thermal runaway under mechanical abuse conditions

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in various devices, ranging from mobile phones and laptop computers to electric vehicles and energy storage systems. However, internal short circuits (ISCs) can occur for a variety of reasons, such as internal foreign matter, overcharging, and mechanical abuse. Micro short circuit (MSC) usually shows a long incubation period and is hard to detect, which leads to many thermal runaway (TR) accidents of LIBs. For mobile phone batteries, bending is a very common abuse condition that may be encountered in daily use. This paper explores the microstructural changes, electrochemical performance, thermal behavior, and the critical point of TR under three-point bending abuse test. Key findings include the impact of bending on the ion diffusion coefficient, the correlation between bending degree and heat generation during charge-discharge cycles, and the identification of a critical angle for TR at 60°. A competing relationship between irreversible heat due to bending and Joule heat from ISC was found, where there exists a critical point of bending angle, after which the total heat generated will be higher than that of normal batteries.

Short-Circuit Failure Modes and Mechanism Investigation of Ohmic-Gate GaN HEMT

Short-Circuit Failure Modes and Mechanism Investigation of Ohmic-Gate GaN HEMT

Fault diagnosis and analysis of a 110 kV transformer

This paper aims to provide valuable insights and assistance for ensuring the safe operation of a 110 kV main transformer by conducting an in-depth analysis of tap changer breather oil leakage defects. By employing transformer testing, disassembly analysis, and other methods, this study successfully identifies and prevents the possibility of transformer failure. The analysis reveals that the deformation of the transformer winding is caused by insufficient short-circuit resistance, which leads to the deformation of the medium-voltage windings under the continuous action of electrodynamic forces during near-area short-circuit currents. Near-area short-circuits are a significant contributing factor to transformer failures. Therefore, it is recommended to enhance operation and maintenance management for older main transformers and optimize protection settings to reduce the risk of near-area short-circuit failures, thus ensuring the safe and stable operation of the main transformer.

Dendrite-free anodes enabled by MOF-808 and ZIF-8 modified glass microfiber separator for ultralong-life zinc-ion hybrid capacitors

Zinc-ion hybrid capacitors (ZIHCs) have been attracted attention for aqueous electrochemical energy storage systems owing to their high safety, low cost, abundant natural resource of zinc, convenient assembly (in an air atmosphere), robust stability with aqueous electrolytes, and the unique electrochemical characteristics of metallic zinc (Zn) as an anode electrode. Nevertheless, the growth of dendrite is the main challenge of zinc electrode in an aqueous electrolyte, leading to short circuit failure. Herein, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been employed to decorate the separator. The porous nature of MOFs has been identified as beneficial for directing uniform zinc deposition. This study focuses on the operational efficiency and lifecycle of ZIHCs utilizing MOFs, specifically MOF-808 and ZIF-8, to modify glass microfiber separators. The results demonstrated that the symmetrical cell using MOF modified separators exhibited high performance, maintaining stable voltage over 1000 h. attributed to the enhanced uniformity of Zn ion flux during striping/plating processes. Additionally, at the current density of 1.0 A g−1, ZICs with MOFs modified separators exhibited higher specific capacities compared to those using the pristine separator and prolonged the cycle life over 20,000 cycles with capacity retention of 56.73 and 63.89 %, respectively. Because the MOFs modified separators can inhibit non-uniform dendritic zinc growth on a zinc anode surface according to the scanning electron micrographs.

Horizontally Arranged Zn Platelet Deposition Regulated by Bi2O3/Bi toward High-Rate and Dendrite-Free 3D Zn Composite Anode.

Aqueous Zn-metal battery is considered as a promising energy-storage system. However, uncontrolled zinc dendrite growth is the main cause of short-circuit failure in aqueous Zn-based batteries. One of the most efficient and convenient strategies to alleviate this issue is to introduce appropriate zincophilic nucleation sites to guide zinc metal deposition and regulate crystal growth. Herein, this work proposes Bi2O3/Bi nanosheets anchored on the cell wall surface of the 3D porous conductive host as the Zn deposition sites to modulate Zn deposition behavior and hence inhibit the zinc dendrite growth. Density functional theory and experimental results demonstrate that Bi2O3 has a super zinc binding energy and strong adsorption energy with zinc (002) plane, as a super-zincophilic nucleation site, which results in the deposition of zinc preferentially along the horizontal direction of (002) crystal plane, fundamentally avoids the formation of Zn dendrites. Benefiting from the synergistic effect Bi2O3/Bi zincophilic sites and 3D porous structure in the B-BOGC host, the electrochemical performance of the constructed Zn-based battery is significantly improved. As a result, the Zn anode cycles for 1500cycles at 50mAcm-2 and 1.0 mAhcm-2. Meanwhile, the Zn@B-BOGC//MnO2 full cell can operate stably for 2000 cycles at 2.0Ag-1.

Towards Operando Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Lithium Redistribution in Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries: Correlation of Structural, Chemical and Electrochemical Characteristics

Innovations in lithium-ion batteries rely crucially on the availability of advanced characterization techniques. High-resolution chemical imaging of low-Z elements e.g., lithium (Li) is often difficult in many conventional chemical analysis techniques such as Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy. High-resolution Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) imaging is a well-known technique for the analysis of all elements including isotopes. For this reason, SIMS imaging is used in numerous studies related to Li-ion battery research. While direct imaging of Li in post-mortem battery components is helpful to understand parts of the degradation mechanisms, a complete dynamic view of the evolution of the Li distribution at high resolution during operation (‘operando’) of batteries is required to fully understand the local interfacial processes, charge transport characteristics and the degradation mechanisms. A few reports presenting operando Time-of-Flight SIMS imaging of batteries have recently been published [1], but the lateral resolution demonstrated in these reports is not adequate to study local processes that occur at nanoscale.In order to demonstrate operando SIMS chemical imaging with sub-20 nm lateral resolution, we developed a novel operando methodology suitable for Focused Ion Beam (FIB)-SIMS imaging and analysis (see Fig. 1). An in-house designed magnetic-sector mass spectrometer [2] attached to a ThermoFisher SCIOS Ga+ FIB is used for SIMS chemical imaging. A special operando sample holder was designed to enable electrochemical cycling of batteries within the FIB-SIMS instrument. The micromanipulator inside the FIB (typically used for preparing thin lamellae for Transmission Electron Microscopy) is used to contact one of the battery electrodes through the operando sample holder and complete the electrical circuit. An external potentiostat is then connected to the instrument to drive the charging/discharging of batteries. The proof-of-concept experiments were performed using Li|Li7La3Zr2O12|Li symmetric half-cells. Galvanostatic cycling was performed in-situ inside the FIB-SIMS instrument until the sample failed. SIMS chemical mapping revealed a redistribution of Li during cycling. Lithium rich phases appeared during cycling which likely percolated through grain-boundaries and pores of the solid electrolyte causing a short-circuit failure. These results validate our methodology for operando analysis of Li-ion batteries with the possibility to obtain SIMS chemical images with sub-20 nm lateral resolution [3].This work was funded by the Luxembourg National Research Fund (FNR) through the grant INTER/MERA/20/13992061 (INTERBATT).[1] Y. Yamagishi, et al., J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2021, 12, 19, 4623–4627[2] O. De Castro, et al., Analytical Chemistry, 2022, 94, 30, 10754–10763.[3] L. Cressa, et al., Analytical Chemistry, 2023, under review. Figure 1

Visualization of Lithium Plating Morphologies on Graphite Electrode By O perando X-Ray Tomography

The plating of lithium metal on graphite electrodes in Li-ion batteries is a major factor limiting the fast charging of electric vehicles. Lithium metal plating leads to the growth of dendritic structures that can pierce through the battery’s separator resulting in an internal short circuit and catastrophic failure of the battery. Moreover, the plating of lithium metal on graphite is not reversible, manifesting in poor Coulombic efficiency, severe reduction of the battery’s life expectancy, and safety issues. Understanding how and when plating occurs in Li-ion batteries is crucial in the development of strategies to prevent plating under fast charging conditions. Thus, we have conducted an operando X-ray tomographic microscopy experiment to directly monitor the plating of lithium metal in a Li/Graphite cell when applying electrolytes with the additives vinylene carbonate (VC) and Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI). The experiment was performed at the ID19 beamline (ESRF, France) where tomographic scans, linked with the lithiation state of graphite, made it possible to gain a strong understanding of the mechanisms behind Li-deposition and stripping at high current rates in addition to understand the effect of the VC and LiFSI additives.

Void Growth Dynamics in Solid-State Batteries

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) can potentially offer improved energy density and safety, when compared to current lithium-ion batteries. Despite their irrefutable theoretical promise, further advancement of SSBs relies on developing a comprehensive understanding of various fundamental aspects including electro-chemo-mechanics, transport interactions, morphological evolution and related failure modes at solid-solid interfaces. Amongst the wide range of challenges, the formation and evolution of interfacial voids at the lithium-metal/solid-electrolyte interface during stripping is critical, due to its associated effect on internal short-circuit and cell failure during subsequent plating. The void growth phenomenon in SSBs is jointly determined by different factors such as the self-diffusion kinetics and mechanical response of lithium, reaction distribution at the solid-solid interface, and operating conditions such as external pressure and temperature. In this presentation, the pivotal role of reaction heterogeneity on the contact evolution process, along with key descriptors such as the lithium microstructure, surface morphology and contact percolation are discussed. The underlying asymmetry in terms of the competing electrochemical/mechanical processes and contact evolution during plating and stripping is highlighted. Lastly, the influence of non-uniformities in external pressure and temperature on the occurrence of disparate void growth patterns and electrochemical response is examined in this presentation.

Influence of JFET Width on Short-Circuit Robustness of 1200 V SiC Power MOSFETs

This paper investigates and compares the static performance and short-circuit (SC) robustness of 1200 V SiC MOSFETs with varying JFET widths (WJFET = 2.0–5.0 μm). Short-circuit measurements as well as electrical-thermal simulations are used to identify thermal distribution and maximum electrical field, providing valuable insights into the design limits. The devices under test (DUTs) with narrow and wide WJFET exhibit different failure mechanisms under SC stress. After the short-circuit failure, interlayer dielectric (ILD) cracks are observed in DUTs with narrow JFET width (WJFET < 3 μm). In contrast, it is discovered that the burn mark is located in the channel region of the device with a wide JFET width. Moreover, the short-circuit withstand time (SCWT) of DUTs with narrow and wide WJFET exhibits varying trends under high temperature conditions (100 °C). These results can help verify the different failure mechanisms and determine an optimal JFET design to improve the trade-off between the static performance and SC ruggedness of the SiC MOSFETs.

Breakdown Characteristics of Schottky Barrier Diodes Used as Bypass Diodes in Photovoltaic Modules under Lightning Surges

Damage to photovoltaic power-generation systems by lightning causes the failure of bypass diodes (BPDs) in solar cell modules. Bypass diodes damaged by lightning experience high-resistance open- or short-circuit failures. When a bypass diode experiences short-circuit failure due to indirect lightning, the damage may not be immediately visible. When solar radiation is subsequently received, the current circulating in the closed circuit formed by the cell string and short-circuited bypass diode flows, resulting in overheating and burnout of the short-circuited bypass diode. The authors’ research group previously reported that when a bypass diode fails within a range of approximately 10−1 Ω to 10 Ω, the heat generated by the failed bypass diode is high, posing the risk of burnout. However, the detailed failure characteristics of the bypass diode that fail because of indirect lightning surges are not clear. In this study, we performed indirect lightning fracture tests and clarified the dielectric breakdown characteristics of Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs) contained in the bypass diodes of photovoltaic solar cell modules, which are subjected to indirect lightning surges. Furthermore, we attempted to determine the conditions of indirect lightning that resulted in a higher risk of heat and ignition. As a result, short-circuit failures occurred in all the Schottky barrier diodes that were destroyed in the forward or reverse direction because of the indirect lightning surges. Moreover, the fault resistance decreased as the indirect lightning surge charge increased. These results indicate that the risks of heat generation and burnout increase when the Schottky barrier diode fails with a relatively low electric charge from an indirect lightning surge. In addition, we observed that for a forward breakdown of the Schottky barrier diode, the range of the indirect lightning surge that results in a fault condition with a higher risk of heat generation and burnout is wider than that for a reverse breakdown.

Oxygen-regulated spontaneous solid electrolyte interphase enabling ultra-stable solid-state Na metal batteries

Solid-state sodium metal batteries utilizing inorganic solid electrolytes (SEs) hold immense potentials such as intrinsical safety, high energy density, and environmental sustainability. However, the interfacial inhomogeneity/instability at the anode-SE interface usually triggers the penetration of sodium dendrites into the electrolyte, leading to short circuit and battery failure. Herein, confronting with the original nonuniform and high-resistance solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) at the Na-Na3Zr2Si2PO12 interface, an oxygen-regulated SEI innovative approach is proposed to enhance the cycling stability of anode-SEs interface, through a spontaneous reaction between the metallic sodium (containing trace amounts of oxygen) and the Na3Zr2Si2PO12 SE. The oxygen-regulated spontaneous SEI is thin, uniform, and kinetically stable to facilitate homogenous interfacial Na+ transportation. Benefitting from the optimized SEI, the assembled symmetric cell exhibits an ultra-stable sodium plating/stripping cycle for over 6600 h under a practical capacity of 3 mAh cm−2. Quasi-solid-state batteries with Na3V2(PO4)3 cathode deliver excellent cyclability over 500 cycles at a rate of 0.5 C (1 C = 117 mA cm−2) with a high capacity retention of 95.4%. This oxygen-regulated SEI strategy may offer a potential avenue for the future development of high-energy-density solid-state metal batteries.

An Online Condition Monitoring Method for Series-Connected IGBTs to Avoid Cascading Failure

The series-connected insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) have numerous applications in industry and research fields. One of the risks of the resultant series high-voltage switch (RSHVS) is the IGBTs short circuit failure. The number of the IGBTs in a RSHVS is usually designed with an appropriate voltage de-rating factor to make it resilient against a limited number of the IGBTs short circuit failures. However, by the increased number of failures, the withstand voltage of the healthy IGBTs finally violates the IGBTs' tolerable voltage in the off-state. In such conditions, a cascading failure occurs and breaks all remaining healthy IGBTs. This paper proposes a condition monitoring (CM) method to avoid cascading failure in RSHVSs. The proposed method works based on the change of the rising edge of the load current in the RSHVS turning-on time. It will be shown when some of the IGBTs in the series structure fail short, the turning-on time of the RSHVS increases. Thus, the rising edge of the current also increases which leads to the decrement of high-order harmonics magnitude. The proposed CM analyzes such harmonics and provides a constant voltage as the CM output. The performance of the proposed CM is evaluated using simulations and experiments for a RSHVS consisting of eight IGBTs.

Analysis of short-circuit behavior and failure modes in SiC power devices

This essay presents the advantages of SiC power devices, while the short-circuit characteristics limit their development. The device short-circuit will seriously affect the efficiency of the use of the period. When a load short circuit occurs, both ends of the power MOSFET device will be directly connected to the high bus voltage; therefore, the short circuit process poses a great challenge to the device's ability to withstand high voltage, high current, and high junction temperature simultaneously. In this thesis, the short-circuit process of SiC power devices is investigated by designing a detection circuit, and two failure mechanisms of SiC MOSFET power devices are explained through the understanding of the failure mechanism.