Shipping Network Research Articles

Improved Link Prediction Method for Maritime Silk Road Shipping Network Using Composite Index

The container shipping network has evolved with the development of trade, but the mechanism of its evolution is still not well studied. Link prediction model is one of the main methods used to study the network evolution. The classic indicators of the link prediction model only consider the structural characteristics of the network, but there are also real factors that can influence the evolution of the network. Therefore, this paper considers the structural characteristics of the network as an endogenous index, which includes common neighbors, Adamic–Adar, resource allocation, and so forth. Considering the factors that may affect the link between the ports, such as sailing distance, operation, economy, and political factors, this paper first develops different attractiveness models and determines an optimal attractiveness model in case analysis. After that, this paper proposes a composite index that combines endogenous and attractiveness indices. Taking the Maritime Silk Road (MSR) shipping network as an example, an optimal attractiveness index and then an optimal composite index are determined. It was found that the prediction accuracy under the composite index is improved compared with single indices, which confirms the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed index. Finally, from the perspective of the overall network, this paper discusses the possible future routes of the shipping network with the aim of providing a reference for the improvement of connectivity of the shipping network and planning new routes for shipping companies.

Ship schedule recovery with voluntary speed reduction zones and emission control areas

Liner shipping networks often experience disruptions, and shipping lines must implement certain recovery measures. However, environmental concerns have to be considered as well. The implementation of vessel speed reduction incentive programs (VSRIPs) provides monetary incentives to shipping lines for sailing speed compliance in the vicinity of certain ports but, in the meantime, increases delays, since the speed-up option could not be used to the same extent. There is a scarcity of research that focuses on effectively addressing the competing objectives that arise during ship schedule recovery and incorporates emission reduction policies at ports. This study introduces a new multi-objective approach for ship schedule recovery, considering the presence of VSRIPs, emission control regulations, and a variety of recovery options. A customized algorithm inspired by the principles of dynamic secant approximation and the ε-constraint algorithm is developed and validated through extensive computational experiments. Detailed sensitivity analyses provide thorough managerial insights as well.

An evolution of the Global Container Shipping Network: port connectivity and trading community structure (2011–2017)

Port connectivity and trading community structure are two fundamental network characteristics that complement one another in explaining the evolution of maritime transport networks. Although port connectivity has been widely studied in the literature, the investigations on trading community structures are rather limited. To better fill this gap, this paper aims to provide a more complete picture of the Global Container Shipping Network (GCSN)’s evolution, based on our earlier works in MEL. In doing so, the GCSN, representing a snapshot of trade at the end of each quarter, from Q3/2011 to Q3/2017, is first constructed. The connectivity of ports and their respective trading communities are then extracted by the Container Port Connectivity Index and the Louvain algorithm, respectively. With our proposed framework, related players would be able to understand the growth of GCSN, as well as the impacts of maritime occurrences on the network of container shipping. Our computational results indicate that port connectivity and trading community structure gradually evolve according to the economic conditions that change over time and the evolution of GCSN could be well explained by these two explanatory variables. In this regard, ports in East Asia consistently dominate others in terms of both inbound and outbound connectivity, led by Shanghai and other major ports of mainland China. Furthermore, the formation of trading communities largely depends on trading patterns—rather than geographical locations—which is evident from the insolvency and mergers of communities in the North American region right after the expansion of the Panama Canal in 2016.

External Cost-Benefit of Emission Control Routes between Korea and China Liner Shipping Networks

Purpose - International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations on air pollution for the shipping industry have been strict, and various related policies and projects are being implemented internationally to demonstrate eco-shipping. This study aims to design a new scheme for eco-shipping, namely Emission Control Routes (ECR) regarding ship operations, and to estimate social, environmental, and economic benefits through its implementation.
 Design/Methodology/Approach - This study employed Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) analysis based on voyage segments to design the ECR domain. In addition, this analysis was conducted using data from the Automatic Identification System (AIS) for 1,728 port calls in liner shipping between Korea and China. Finally, the amount of external cost was estimated by scenario analysis, which set the speed limit within ECR waters at 10, 11, and 12 knots.
 Findings - The results found that if the ECR system is implemented in the liner service between Korea and China, social and environmental costs can be reduced by 26.17% - 40.61%, and ship operators can achieve cost savings of 45.07% - 66.99% in fuel costs.
 Research Implications - This study is crucial as it explores a new direction of air environment policy for the shipping industry, and analyzes the cost-effectiveness following the scenario condition for implementing the ECR strategy. In addition, political performance can be created synergistically when existing environmental policies have the potential for collaboration with the Emission Trading System (ETS).

A framework for understanding reliability in container shipping networks

Improving reliability is increasingly regarded as an important topic in maritime transportation, especially given the significant impact that both uncertainty and delays in shipping and at ports have on the efficient flow of freight along wider supply chains. The term ‘reliability’ appears in different academic fields and with a variety of different meanings and interpretations. In transportation, reliability has been studied in most modes, but less so in the case of maritime containerisation. This paper reports on a systematic literature review of the concept of reliability in transportation, with a focus on reliability in container shipping networks. The selected papers were analysed to extract information according to the three identified sub-networks: (1) ports, including studies with a focus on infrastructure, service availability and risks in ports and hinterlands; (2) network structures, including the configuration of the networks, the vulnerability and resilience of the existing networks; (3) supply chains, including connectivity and planning of activities that integrate stakeholders within the supply chain. These sub-networks were then used to further query the database, searching for papers relevant to the research problem. Two research questions are addressed: (1) How is reliability best understood in the context of container shipping networks? (2) What are the determinants that affect container shipping network reliability? The review showed that there is no uniform definition of reliability in container shipping networks, but different approaches to understand it, depending on the theoretical perspective, have been adopted. Influencing factors and relevant metrics are discussed and a framework combining different dimensions of reliability, expressed as three themes, i.e., infrastructure reliability, network configuration reliability, and connectivity reliability, is developed. This can help both practitioners and researchers to understand in more detail the various dimensions and nuances of reliability specifically in the context of container shipping, its interrelationship with wider logistics systems and how, where possible, reliability can be improved.

Analysis of the impact of Suez Canal blockage on the global shipping network

This study aims to quantitatively analyze the impact of the Suez Canal blockage on global maritime transportation networks. The Suez Canal, a critical global maritime transport route, experienced a significant disruption due to a ship grounding accident in March 2021, exposing the fragility of global logistics supply chains. We constructed a comprehensive shipping network, integrating real trajectory data from automatic identification system (AIS) devices on ships collected in 2018. The network comprises 2713 nodes and 137,830 links, with defined targeted (Suez Canal blockage) and random attack modes. Our analysis, based on multiple network topology metrics, reveals that the blockage had a considerable effect on the global shipping network, significantly more than random disruptions of comparable scale. The incident led to a decrease in network accessibility and connectivity, conforming to the law of distance attenuation. The effects varied across continents; Africa experienced the most significant impact, while Asia and Europe were less affected. Europe's developed transport system effectively mitigated the impact. Data on different ship types passing through the Suez Canal showed that container ships and petrochemical tankers were the most affected. This research underlines the Suez Canal's significance to global shipping and the necessity of robust supply chain management strategies to limit the fallout from similar future incidents.

How to operate ship fleets under uncertainty

Ships operated by a liner company are scattered around the world to transport goods. A liner company needs to adjust its shipping network every few months by repositioning its ships to respond to uncertain container shipping demand. Few studies investigate a liner company's multiperiod heterogeneous fleet deployment problem under uncertainty, considering fleet repositioning, ship chartering, demand fulfillment, cargo allocation, and adaptive fleet sizes. To this end, this study formulates a mixed‐integer linear programming model that captures all of these elements. This study also designs a Benders‐based branch‐and‐cut algorithm for this non‐deterministic polynomial‐time (NP)‐hard problem. Two types of acceleration strategies, including approximate upper bound tightening inequalities and Pareto‐optimal cuts, are applied to improve the performance of the algorithm. Extensive numerical experiments show that the proposed algorithm significantly outperforms CPLEX and its Benders decomposition framework in solving the model. We conduct an intensive analysis and find that multistage stochastic programming can lead to better solutions than two‐stage stochastic programming. We also find that 10% of the benefit provided by the multistage model over the two‐stage model is due to better fleet deployment decisions and that 90% of the benefit is due to better demand fulfillment and allocation decisions. By exploring three practical questions regarding driver analysis of liner company profitability, benefits analysis of adaptive fleet sizes, and the influence of the COVID‐19 pandemic on liner shipping, we show how liner companies can benefit from managerial insights obtained in this study.

Cruise shipping network of ports in and around the emission control areas: a network structure perspective

PurposeThe rapid growth in cruise shipping coupled with increasing public awareness of climate change has led to increasing concerns about the impact cruise shipping poses on the environment, especially regarding air emissions. This study analyses the cruise shipping network of ports in and around the emission control areas (ECAs) to understand the structural properties of the network and ports.Design/methodology/approachA complex network approach was used to analyse the network data of 239 voyages serviced by 14 international cruise lines, visiting 127 ports across 44 countries in the Caribbean Sea.FindingsIt is found that the network has a small-world property with a short average path length and a high clustering coefficient. The regulations affect connections among ports, in which most ports in ECAs have lower connections than ports outside ECAs. A few ports in ECAs play important key roles, but many ports outside ECAs play a more important role in the network because the regulations are barriers for cruise ships entering the ports.Originality/valueThe findings of this study have drawn useful guidelines for cruise lines and port authorities to improve their operations. Constrictive recommendations are suggested to policymakers for designing reasonable regulations to attract more cruise shipping to travel in ECAs.

Liner shipping network design model with carbon tax, seasonal freight rate fluctuations and empty container relocation

In response to the challenges posed by the shipping carbon tax resulting from the low-carbon environmental policy, the seasonal fluctuation of freight rates in the container liner shipping market, and the reduced flexibility in fleet adjustment, we develop a bi-level programming model to maximize the average revenue per container ship and the total revenue of the fleet.The upper-level model selects the optimal shipping networks for both the off-season and peak season, while also designing the liner fleet for these two networks. The lower-level model optimizes the slot allocation scheme and the empty container storage and transportation scheme to evaluate the revenue of the network calculated by the upper-level model. Three meta-heuristic algorithms are proposed. We take the China-West Europe liner shipping route as the research object, and conduct numerical experiments on different optimization objectives and liner types. Results demonstrate that maximizing the average revenue per container ship involves reducing the carbon tax cost, simplifying the trunk route structure, and increasing the number of feeder routes. These changes lead to reduced satisfaction rates for transportation demands in both China and Europe. If the company seeks to maximize total revenue, they may achieve the opposite result. Therefore, liner companies should reasonably set optimization goals, adjust the network structure and liner operation status in a timely manner, and scientifically allocate container ship and empty containers to achieve the operational goals of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing revenue to cope with the volatile market and the low-carbon regulations.

Dynamic pricing and competition of container liner shipping services in a duopoly spot market

With the application of online booking technology in the spot market of container liner shipping, dynamic pricing is considered an important tool and development trend to balance container shipping supply and demand from the spot market. This study examines the dynamic pricing and competition of container liner shipping services in a duopoly spot market where two shipping companies compete on liner routes with multiple overlapping origin–destination (O-D) pairs. The demand within the spot market for one shipping company is sensitive to both the freight rate set by the shipping company and its competitor. To tackle this complex challange, a non-linear mixed-integer generalized Nash equilibrium optimization model was formulated for the dynamic pricing and competition problem to maximize the profits of both shipping companies. To effectively reach the optimal solution for the dynamic pricing and competition problem, the proposed model is reformulated as a linear complementary problem with a Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditional system. An optimal response decomposition algorithm is developed to obtain the global optimal solution of the model. Numerical experiments with the Trans-Pacifc shipping network of two oligarchic shipping companies were conducted to demonstrate the efficiency of the solution algorithm and the applicability of the proposed model in improving the two companies’ profits from the spot market.

Оценка надежности асинхронных дизель-генераторных установок переменной частоты вращения

Calculation and subsequent analysis of reliability indicators is a mandatory stage of development and commissioning of technical devices. There has been carried out an assessment of reliability in relation to diesel generator sets operating in the mode of adjustable rotational speed at shared loads, which ensures their high energy efficiency. Unconditional compliance with the requirements for the quality of the generated energy (amplitude and frequency of the voltage in the ship's network) is realized in these generating devices by means of semiconductor converter technology. It is obvious that the increased technical complexity of variable-speed generator sets, which can be attributed to the class of machine-valve generator complexes, is associated with a certain decrease in their reliability indicators. There are presented structural schemes and indicated the composition of power equipment and controls for machine-valve generator complexes based on asynchronous generators with a short-circuited and phase rotor. The method of calculating the reliability indicators of these asynchronous diesel generator complexes is considered. The results of calculating the failure rate and operating time for failure are given, taking into account the load diagram of the power plant and the tachogram of the drive internal combustion engine, which corresponds to operation at energy-efficient rotational speeds at optimal (close to nominal) specific fuel consumption. The results of a comparative analysis of the operating time for failure allow us to determine the most reliable version of asynchronous generator electrical installation in operation.

Knowledge mapping analysis of resilient shipping network using CiteSpace

The concept of resilience has been mentioned in many fields in recent years. In a broad sense, resilience refers to coping with risks. It generally refers to the system's ability to promptly adapt to impacts and changes and maintain functional and structural integrity. In the shipping sector, the resilience-related literature is, to a large extent, unstructured and scattered. This is because that different scholars have different starting points for studying resilience, which is embodied in different ways in various components of the shipping network. There are limited literature reviews to systematically relate research findings, streamline the evolution of frontier domains of research, and extract new trends in the fields. To this end, this article adopts a bibliometric knowledge mapping approach to review the literature on shipping network resilience systematically. The article uses CiteSpace to sort out the evolution of this field, classifying 176 related documents into seven key research topics. After analyzing the limitations and trends of the existing literature, the article proposes five research directions that may be more promising.

Identifying Transshipment Hubs in a Global Container Shipping Network: An Approach Based on Reinforced Structural Holes

Transshipment hubs are important components of the global container shipping network. Nowadays, hybrid ports are emerging, handling both gateway and transshipment container traffic depending on their significant maritime connectivity. Effectively identifying transshipment hubs, including traditional transshipment hubs with high transshipment incidences and hybrid ports with sufficient transshipment capabilities, is crucial to gain a good understanding of container shipping networks. The method of reinforced structural holes (RSHs) has been introduced from the sociology to detect transshipment hubs at the global level, as it can fully consider the existence of separated cohesive port communities. The results show that the RSH-based approach is feasible to identify those hubs playing the role of bridges across different port communities worldwide, which is demonstrated from the perspective of maritime connectivity. The higher ranked hubs with higher RSH values generally have better maritime connections with ports from various port communities. Several policy implications have been further elaborated for relevant decision makers, such as liner companies and port operators.

Maritime accidents affect the environment

This paper highlights the effects of transport accidents on the environment, specifically those occurring in maritime transportation. International trading and shipping are important for several reasons. International trade and shipping facilitate the movement of goods and services between countries, contributing to economic growth and development. It allows countries to access resources, products, and markets they might not have domestically, thus expanding their economic potential. Not all countries possess the same resources or expertise. International trade enables countries to specialise in producing goods and services where they have a comparative advantage, leading to more efficient resource allocation and increased productivity. International trade provides consumers access to various goods and services at different prices. This enhances consumer choice and allows people to enjoy products that may not be available or affordable domestically. International trade fosters competition among businesses, driving them to innovate, improve quality, and reduce costs to stay competitive in the global marketplace. This benefits consumers through better products and lower prices. Export-oriented industries create jobs as they expand to meet global demand. These jobs often have higher wages due to the specialised skills required. International trade generates foreign exchange earnings for a country, which can be used to pay for imports, service foreign debt, and invest in other countries. A positive balance of payments is crucial for a stable economy. Trade exposes people to different cultures by exchanging goods, services, and ideas. This fosters greater understanding and co-operation among nations. Dependence on a single industry or market can be risky. International trade allows countries to diversify economies and reduce vulnerability to economic shocks. Shipping and transportation networks required for international trade often lead to improvements in infrastructure, including ports, roads, railways, and communication systems. These improvements benefit not only trade but also local communities. Trade can facilitate the transfer of technology, know-how, and best practices between countries. This helps less developed countries to catch up and develop more quickly. While shipping contributes to global carbon emissions, it also promotes energy-efficient practices through demand for cleaner and more sustainable transport options. In summary, international trading and shipping are essential drivers of economic growth, job creation, innovation, and cultural exchange, fostering co-operation and stability between nations while promoting efficient resource utilisation and diversification. The author performed a detailed statistical analysis based on the accident database. It explains the impacts on the environment and some remedies for it.

Impacts of Marine Surface Pressure Observations from a Spaceborne Differential Absorption Radar Investigated with an Observing System Simulation Experiment

Abstract A new instrument has been proposed for measuring surface air pressure over the marine surface with a combined active/passive scanning multichannel differential absorption radar to provide an estimate of the total atmospheric column oxygen content. A demonstrator instrument, the Microwave Barometric Radar and Sounder (MBARS), has been funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for airborne test missions. Here, a proof-of-concept study to evaluate the potential impact of spaceborne surface pressure data on numerical weather prediction is performed using the Goddard Modeling and Assimilation Office global observing system simulation experiment (OSSE) framework. This OSSE framework employs the Goddard Earth Observing System model and the hybrid 4D ensemble variational Gridpoint Statistical Interpolation data assimilation system. Multiple flight and scanning configurations of potential spaceborne orbits are examined. Swath width and observation spacing for the surface pressure data are varied to explore a range of sampling strategies. For wider swaths, the addition of surface pressures reduces the root-mean-square surface pressure analysis error by as much as 20% over some ocean regions. The forecast sensitivity observation impact tool estimates impacts on the Pacific Ocean basin boundary layer 24-h forecast temperatures for spaceborne surface pressures that are on par with rawinsondes and aircraft and estimates greater impacts than the current network of ships and buoys. The largest forecast impacts are found in the Southern Hemisphere extratropics.

Integrated Planning of Feeder Route Selection, Schedule Design, and Fleet Allocation with Multimodal Transport Path Selection Considered

In the shipping network optimization, the feeder liner companies not only need to decrease the operation cost by comprehensively optimizing the route, schedule, and fleet but also try to increase the operation income by attracting more shippers, with multimodal transport-path selection considered. Therefore, this paper proposes the integrated planning of feeder route selection, schedule design, and fleet allocation with shippers’ transport-path selection considered. We utilize the nested Logit model to analyze the shipper selection behavior for the multimodal transport path and then formulate a mixed-integer nonlinear programming model of integrated optimization for route, schedule, and fleet. To solve our nonlinear model, we propose a particle swarm optimization (PSO) framework embedded with CPLEX solver by combining the constraint relaxations and the linearization techniques with the heuristic rules. Based on the multimodal transport system in Northern China, computational experiments were conducted to verify the effectiveness of our model and algorithm. The sensitivity analyses of model parameters show that with the increase in ship rent, feeder liner companies should reduce the ship capacity or try to increase the number of port call. With the increase in fuel price, feeder liner companies should reduce the ship speed under the constraints of the arrival-time window and schedule interval. If shippers’ time utility coefficient is high, feeder liner companies should shorten the sailing time of ships by decreasing the number of port calls or shorten the at-port time of ships by increasing the service frequency. If the multimodal transport paths are cost-advantaged or if the waterway transport time has a small impact on multimodal transport time, feeder liner companies should weigh the increase in income and cost when using the measures of time saving. These management insights provide decision support for the operation practice of liner shipping network optimization.

The Persian Gulf-Black Sea International Transport and Transit Corridor: Goals and Constraints

ABSTRACT The Persian Gulf-Black Sea International Transport and Transit Corridor is a multimodal and combined network of ships, rails, and road freight routes connecting Iran, Armenia, Georgia, Bulgaria, and Greece. Iran is the trustee of the agreement and has played the central role in establishing a transit route to the Black Sea region as ‘Tehran’s forgotten bridge to Europe’ since its inception in 2016. Nonetheless, the Persian Gulf-Black Sea Corridor faces significant obstacles and challenges: resolving Iran’s nuclear issues, resolving disputes between Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan, and stabilizing the security situation in the Black Sea following the Ukraine war, all of which reduce its efficiency and quality. In these circumstances, connecting the Iranian railway to the Caucasus and Armenia and building Armenia’s North-South highway and the deep port of Anaklia on Georgia’s Black Sea coast can stretch the capacities of the Persian Gulf-Black Sea Corridor. It can also strengthen the Wider Black Sea Region and the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).

Application of Sea Toll as a Means to Maintain the Availability of Goods in the 3T Area (Lagging, Frontier and Outermost)

Public Service Obligation (PSO) is the implementation of public services used by each country to mandate operators regarding minimum service standards, especially for remote areas where the output is expected to be increased and developed every year. Indonesia as an archipelagic country builds connectivity that can be adequate and can improve economic balance and welfare for the surrounding ecological community. The Sea Toll Program is designed so that each region can be connected between regions in Indonesia with adequate schedules and infrastructure, especially in areas that are still 3 T (Lagging, Frontier and Outermost). This study aims to describe the role of the Sea Toll from the government in designing and maintaining the availability of goods in the 3T area. The research method used is qualitative with a descriptive research approach, which is to say solving the current problems based on data that occurs in the field. So the implementation of sea tolls starting from 2015 to 2022 experiences a positive trend because from year to year it is seen that Indonesia has made a policy to realize an even logistics system by developing shipping networks to the periphery.

Modeling Structural Changes in Intra-Asian Maritime Container Shipping Networks Considering Their Characteristics

In East Asia, where several large hub ports exist, maritime container shipping (MCS) has developed rapidly, and the MCS network has become more complex. This study develops a link prediction model that reproduces the changes in the structure of the intra-Asian oceangoing MCS network using graph theory. To improve the prediction accuracy, we propose a method that reflects the generation of a link considering the node and link characteristics of the MCS network, including the port performance and shipping distance between ports. Consequently, we conclude: (1) The intra-Asian oceangoing MCS network has expanded from 2011 to 2021 as the trading partners and trade volume have increased. (2) The usefulness of the proposed model is confirmed. In particular, the proposed model is good at predicting the new links between ports with short distances. (3) The prediction accuracy of link disappearance remains to be improved.

Comparative technical-economic evaluation of offshore container port systems

ABSTRACT The growth trend in the container industry has had a significant operational and infrastructural impact on the ports. In this context, the offshore port systems are expected to be an innovative port system in the effective use of mega container ships by offering operational and structural advantages. This study aims to guide the authorities on whether OCPS is worth investing in, in terms of investment costs. This article also highlights the financial feasibility of an OCPS that can allow countries with difficult nautical access to mega vessels to enter the global trade network. The data in this research were obtained from similar projects and studies with a series of industry assumptions. Overall, these results indicate that OCPS can compete with conventional ports in terms of investment costs, operating costs, and return on investment. Thus, a more sustainable container shipping network can be achieved with the advantages of OCPS.