Ship Exhaust Emissions Research Articles

The relationship between atmospheric pollutant emissions and fuel qualities of inland vessels in Jiangsu Province, China

ABSTRACTAir pollution caused by ship exhaust emission is receiving more and more attention. The physical and chemical properties of fuels, such as sulfur content and PAHs content, potentially had a significant influence on air pollutant emissions from inland vessels. In order to investigate the effects of fuel qualities on atmospheric pollutant emissions systematically, a series of experiments was conducted based on the method of actual ship testing. As a result, SO2, PM and NOx emission rates all increased with the increase of main engine rotating speed under cruise mode, while PM and NOx emission factors were inversely proportional to the main engine rotating speed. Moreover, SO2 emission factor changed little with the increase of the main engine rotating speed. In summary, the fuel-dependent specific emission of SO2 was a direct reflection of the sulfur content in fuel. The PM emission increased with the increase of sulfur content and PAHs content in fuel. However, fuel qualities impacted little on NOx emissions from inland vessels because of NOx formation mechanisms and conditions.Implications: Ship activity is considered to be the third largest source of air pollution in China. In particular, air pollutants emitted from ships in river ports and waterways have a direct impact on regional air quality and pose threat on the health of local residents owing to high pollutants concentration and poor air diffusion. The study on the relationship between air pollutant emissions and fuel quality of inland vessels can provide foundational data for local authority to formulate reasonable and appropriate policies for reducing atmospheric pollution due to inland vessels.

Assigning machinery power values for estimating ship exhaust emissions: Comparison of auxiliary power schemes

While ship exhaust emissions can be calculated at both large scales and fine resolutions due to the availability of activity data from the Automatic Identification System, there are still uncertainties in the assignment of ship engine and boiler power, which then leads to uncertainties in the estimated emissions. Reliable information is usually available for main engines, including engine type and installed power, and physical models exist for estimating propulsive power requirements. However, similar models are not available for estimating auxiliary power requirements. This study examines methods for calculating the actual operating power of auxiliary engines and auxiliary boilers. Earlier approaches assumed that installed auxiliary engine power increased in proportion to installed main engine power. Auxiliary-to-main engine power ratios were specified by ship type, and load factors were specified by ship type and operating mode. Auxiliary boiler power was generally not differentiated by ship size. More recent approaches are based on extensive ship survey data, and give tables of auxiliary engine and auxiliary boiler power binned against ship type, ship size and operating mode. These surveys show that auxiliary power does not necessarily increase with ship size or main engine power. A revised approach based on the recent data sources is adopted and applied to a case study of four ports in southeast Australia. The revised approach is informed by a local survey of ships to investigate auxiliary power demand. Comparisons are made of the impact of the different approaches on the magnitude and spatial distribution of the emissions.

Integrating multi-source maritime information to estimate ship exhaust emissions under wind, wave and current conditions

How to accurately calculate ship exhaust emissions has become urgent needs. In this paper, multi-source maritime information is integrated to estimate ship exhaust emissions under ocean environment. Influences of wind, wave and current on ship speed are firstly analyzed and mathematically modeled. Based on the influences, ocean environment information and ship trajectories are integrated to identify ship activities exactly. After that, ship activity based calculation method is present to obtain exhaust emissions from ship in various activities. Contribution ratios of different ship type and ship activities have been further discussed. In a case study of Ningbo-Zhoushan port in China, greenhouse gas (CO2, CO, SOx, NOx and PM) emissions from ships in 2014 calculated by the proposed method are 8.72 × 105 ton, 2.07 × 103 ton, 1.47 × 104 ton, 2.60 × 104 ton and 1.40 × 103 ton respectively. The maximum error is under 10%. Experimental results illustrate that the proposed method can produce more accurate ship exhaust emissions than traditional method under ocean environment conditions.

Experiment and Prediction Studies of Marine Exhaust Gas SO2 and Particle Removal Based on NaOH Solution with a U-Type Scrubber

Marine diesel engines produce exhaust gas including a lot of SOx and particulate matter (PM), and laws have been promulgated to regulate ship exhaust emissions. This paper proposes a U-type exhaust gas cleaning (EGC) system that is capable of removing SO2 and particulate matter (PM) simultaneously. The purpose of this study was to find the relationships between removing efficiency and parameters of EGC system, then get the optimal structural and operational parameters. The experimental results show that the SO2 absorption rate in the scrubber was mainly influenced by liquid–gas ratio, pH value, and temperature in the range of experimental operating conditions. With the system stable running, when the liquid–gas ratio and temperature were determined, the pH value must be in a fixed range of 6.5–7.5. The further research was also carried on for the EGC system applicable to ships. On the basis of SO2 removal efficiency, the prediction and experimental validation of particulate matter (PM) were studied. When ...

Characterization of Particle and Gaseous Emissions from Marine Diesel Engines with Different Fuels and Impact of After-Treatment Technology

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) and some countries have gradually strengthened the laws regulating ship exhaust emissions. The aim of this paper is to estimate the impact of an after-treatment technology exhaust gas cleaning (EGC) system on marine diesel engine emissions and the cost advantage compared to using low-sulfur fuel oil. The emission characteristics of SO2 and particulate matter (PM) produced from high sulfur oil and low sulfur oil in a low-speed two-stroke marine diesel engine were also presented. The removal efficiency of SO2 has been tested and the PM removal efficiency was also predicted in this study. When using high sulfur oil, the emission factor of SO2 and PM were from 8.73 g/kWh to 11.6 g/kWh and 2.0 g/kWh to 2.7 g/kWh, respectively. These values are significantly higher than the emission values from using low sulfur oil. The fuel sulfur content (FSC) was the key factor affecting the emission factors of SO2 and PM. The fuel change could reduce the mass emission factor of PM, which is above 90% for the total particle emission with the two fuels. When using the EGC system, the desulfurization efficiencies were above 99%. The pH values at a 25, 39, 53, and 67% load were also stabilized to be around 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, and 8, respectively. The EGC system can also capture part of the primary PM and secondary PM formed from SO2. The EGC system was more effective for PM of the size larger than 1 μm. Thus, according to this study, the usage of low sulfur oil and EGC will also substantially decrease the emission of currently unregulated hazardous chemical species in the exhaust gas of ships in addition to satisfying future emissions regulations of ship. Furthermore, the EGC system also had a significant cost advantage compared to using low-sulfur fuel oil.

High-spatiotemporal-resolution ship emission inventory of China based on AIS data in 2014

Ship exhaust emissions have been considered a significant source of air pollution, with adverse impacts on the global climate and human health. China, as one of the largest shipping countries, has long been in great need of in-depth analysis of ship emissions. This study for the first time developed a comprehensive national-scale ship emission inventory with 0.005°×0.005° resolution in China for 2014, using the bottom-up method based on Automatic Identification System (AIS) data of the full year of 2014. The emission estimation involved 166,546 unique vessels observed from over 15billion AIS reports, covering OGVs (ocean-going vessels), CVs (coastal vessels) and RVs (river vessels). Results show that the total estimated ship emissions for China in 2014 were 1.1937×106t (SO2), 2.2084×106t (NOX), 1.807×105t (PM10), 1.665×105t (PM2.5), 1.116×105t (HC), 2.419×105t (CO), and 7.843×107t (CO2, excluding RVs), respectively. OGVs were the main emission contributors, with proportions of 47%–74% of the emission totals for different species. Vessel type with the most emissions was container (~43.6%), followed by bulk carrier (~17.5%), oil tanker (~5.7%) and fishing ship (~4.9%). Monthly variations showed that emissions from transport vessels had a low point in February, while fishing ship presented two emission peaks in May and September. In terms of port clusters, ship emissions in BSA (Bohai Sea Area), YRD (Yangtze River Delta) and PRD (Pearl River Delta) accounted for ~13%, ~28% and ~17%, respectively, of the total emissions in China. On the contrast, the average emission intensities in PRD were the highest, followed by the YRD and BSA regions. The establishment of this high-spatiotemporal-resolution ship emission inventory fills the gap of national-scale ship emission inventory of China, and the corresponding ship emission characteristics are expected to provide certain reference significance for the management and control of the ship emissions.

Estimation and spatio-temporal analysis of ship exhaust emission in a port area

Atmosphere pollution brought by rapid development of shipping industry becomes increasingly serious, and has brought great challenges to maritime supervision and management. With the popularization of AIS (Automatic Identification System) technology, massive navigation logs recording rich ship activities can be collected. These logs make it possible to apply a data-driven method to quantify exhaust emissions from ships. This paper is therefore motivated to research methods of approximately estimating ship exhaust emissions and exploring its spatial distribution and variation rules. Firstly, ship static and dynamic information extracted from AIS logs are utilized to distinguish different ship navigational states. A quantitative model is then created to estimate ship emissions from main engine, auxiliary engine and boiler with varied work conditions in different states. Spatio-temporal analysis methods are further applied to comprehensively discovery knowledge hidden in ship emission inventories. Typical analyses from space, time and attributes have uncovered much useful knowledge for ship emission supervision, such as high-polluted area, peak-emission time, least environmentally friendly ship type, etc. Finally, Ningbo-Zhoushan port plays a role as case study in validating the proposed method. The experiment results illustrate this research can be helpful to make efficient emission control measures and improve the capability of environmental management.

Spatial and temporal allocation of ship exhaust emissions in Australian coastal waters using AIS data: Analysis and treatment of data gaps

Ship exhaust emissions need to be allocated accurately in both space and time in order to examine many of the associated impacts, including on air quality and health. Data on ship activity from the Automatic Identification System (AIS) allow ship exhaust emissions to be calculated with fine spatial and temporal resolution. However, there are spatial gaps in the coverage afforded by the coastal network of ground stations that are used to collect the AIS data. This paper focuses on the problem of allocating emissions to the coastal gap regions. Allocating emissions to these regions involves generating interpolated ship tracks that both span the gaps and avoid coming too close to land. In most cases, a simple shortest path or straight line interpolation produces tracks that do not overlap or come too close to land. Where the simple method does not produce acceptable results, vessel tracks are steered around land on shortest available paths using a combination of visibility graphs and Dijkstra's algorithm. A geographical cluster analysis is first used to identify the boundary regions of the data gaps. The properties of the data gaps are summarised in terms of the length, duration and speed of the spanning tracks. The interpolation methods are used to improve the spatial distribution of emissions. It is also shown that emissions in the gap regions can contribute substantially to the total ship exhaust emissions in close proximity to highly populated areas.

Establishment of the Sustainable Ecosystem for the Regional Shipping Industry Based on System Dynamics

The rapid development of the shipping industry has brought great economic benefits but at a great environmental cost; exhaust emissions originating from ships are increasing, causing serious atmospheric pollution. Hence, the mitigation of ship exhaust emissions and the establishment of the sustainable ecosystem have become urgent tasks, which will require complicated and comprehensive systematic approaches to solve. We address this problem by establishing a System Dynamics (SD) model to help mitigate regional ship exhaust emissions without restricting economic growth and promote the development of the sustainable ecosystem. Factors correlated with ship exhaust emissions are identified, and a causal loop diagram is drawn to describe the complicated interrelations among the correlated factors. Then, a stock-and-flow diagram is designed and variable equations and parameter values are determined to quantitatively describe the dynamic relations among different elements. After verifying the effectiveness of the model, different scenarios for the sustainable development in the study area were set by changing the values of the controlling variables. The variation trends of the exhaust emissions and economic benefits for Qingdao port under different scenarios were predicted for the years 2015–2025. By comparing the simulation results, the effects of different sustainable development measures were analyzed, providing a reference for the promotion of the harmonious development of the regional environment and economy.

Performance and emission characteristics of additives-enhanced heavy fuel oil in large two-stroke marine diesel engine

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) has gradually strengthened the laws regulating ship exhaust emissions. The majority of ships designed for international voyages and powered by large two-stroke marine diesel engines use heavy fuel oil (HFO), which has the advantage of a low price compared to other types of fuel. However, HFO generates large amounts of harmful exhaust emissions during combustion in a marine diesel engine. In addition, as fuel costs account for a large portion of the expenditure budgets of the shipping companies that operate and manage such ships, fuel cost reduction is of considerable interest to such companies. In this study, two fuel additives, oil-soluble Ca-based and oil-soluble Fe-based organometallic compounds, which can improve the performance of diesel engines, were injected into HFO at fixed concentrations (1/4000 and 1/6000 of the total fuel, respectively), in attempts to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. For enhanced experimental accuracy and reproducibility, a large two-stroke diesel engine installed in a land-based power plant was used as the test subject. Evaluative tests were conducted for three engine loads (50%, 75%, and 100%). The engine performance (i.e., the fuel consumption rate, maximum combustion pressure, and exhaust gas temperature) and the exhaust emissions (NOx, particulate matter (PM)) were analyzed before and after the fuel additive insertion.

Spatial and Seasonal Dynamics of Ship Emissions over the Yangtze River Delta and East China Sea and Their Potential Environmental Influence.

The Yangtze River Delta (YRD) port cluster is one of five major port clusters in China and is home to Shanghai port, the largest port worldwide. In this study, an automatic identification system-based model was built to estimate the ship exhaust emissions in the YRD and the East China Sea within 400 km of the coastline. In 2010, the total emissions of SO2, NOX, and PM2.5 were 3.8 × 10(5) tonnes/yr, 7.1 × 10(5) tonnes/yr, and 5.1 × 10(4) tonnes/yr, respectively. More than 60% and 85% of the ship emissions occurred within 100 km and 200 km of the coastline, respectively. Ship emissions also showed distinct seasonal variability. The emission of SO2 and NOX by ships in hot spots, such as ports and vessel traffic hubs was much higher than that on land, with maximum SO2 and NOX intensities from ships that were 36 times and 17 times greater, respectively, than the maximal land-based emissions. The potential impact of ship emissions at six hot spots on the surrounding atmospheric environment was estimated with the HYSPLIT model. Our study demonstrated that ship emissions have an important impact on both the entire YRD region and on greater East China.

Assessment of the air quality levels in the King Abdul Aziz Port in Dammam

Background: Shipping transportation, loading and uploading, is considered a major source of air pollution worldwide. All the recent studies are concerned with the serious impacts of air pollutants, but, in ports, ship emissions still have a significant deterioration on the air quality levels on a local and regional scale. In ports, the main air pollutants resulting from the ship exhaust emissions are carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The significant health effects of the air pollutants emitted from the industrial activities in ports may include respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, and death. Objective: To assess the air quality levels in the King Abdul Aziz Port in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia for compliance with national and international standards. Materials and Methods: This study was conducted at the King Abdul Aziz Port where four stations were analyzed for gaseous and particulate air pollutants using certified and calibrated equipment. Result: In comparison with the Recommended Saudi and International Air Quality Guidelines, the concentration levels of NO2, SO2, O3, and VOCs and the levels of PM10 surprisingly exceeded the limit in all the sampling stations in the port, while low levels of CO and CO2 were detected in all the sampling stations. Conclusion: Air quality parameters such as NO2, SO2, O3, VOCs, PM10 were in high significant concentrations from all the stations, especially in cargo loading and unloading platforms and traffic activities. However, further studies are urgently needed to carry out air pollution investigations of the sea port in the kingdom.

Ship emissions and their externalities in cruise ports

This paper presents an estimation and analysis of ship exhaust emissions and their externalities in the popular cruise destinations of Dubrovnik (Croatia) and Kotor (Montenegro) along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. To this extent, the recent record (2012–2014) of cruise ships calling at these ports is used to model and estimate the ship exhaust emission inventories and externalities within the associated bays and ports.The results indicate that cruise ship traffic produces continuously increasing air pollution in both ports over recent years. More importantly, however, the analysis of the ship operating characteristics reveals that for any given ship traffic involving specific vessels using marine fuel of a given quality, the presence of other factors (e.g. berth availability, berth accessibility etc) can also influence the ship emission levels. This is particularly evident in the case of the port of Kotor where berth space insufficiency dictates the need for ship anchorage thus leading to increased air pollution and costs of associated damage.The application and results of the aforementioned ship activity-based methodology to the ports of Dubrovnik and Kotor improves our understanding of ship emissions in cruise bays and ports, and contributes toward the implementation of port policies for the effective control of air quality in such environmentally sensitive locations.

The mortality effect of ship-related fine particulate matter in the Sydney greater metropolitan region of NSW, Australia

This study investigates the mortality effect of primary and secondary PM2.5 related to ship exhaust in the Sydney greater metropolitan region of Australia. A detailed inventory of ship exhaust emissions was used to model a) the 2010/11 concentration of ship-related PM2.5 across the region, and b) the reduction in PM2.5 concentration that would occur if ships used distillate fuel with a 0.1% sulfur content at berth or within 300km of Sydney. The annual loss of life attributable to 2010/11 levels of ship-related PM2.5 and the improvement in survival associated with use of low-sulfur fuel were estimated from the modelled concentrations.In 2010/11, approximately 1.9% of the region-wide annual average population weighted-mean concentration of all natural and human-made PM2.5 was attributable to ship exhaust, and up to 9.4% at suburbs close to ports. An estimated 220years of life were lost by people who died in 2010/11 as a result of ship exhaust-related exposure (95% CIβ: 140–290, where CIβ is the uncertainty in the concentration-response coefficient only). Use of 0.1% sulfur fuel at berth would reduce the population weighted-mean concentration of PM2.5 related to ship exhaust by 25% and result in a gain of 390life-years over a twenty year period (95% CIβ: 260–520). Use of 0.1% sulfur fuel within 300km of Sydney would reduce the concentration by 56% and result in a gain of 920life-years over twenty years (95% CIβ: 600–1200).Ship exhaust is an important source of human exposure to PM2.5 in the Sydney greater metropolitan region. This assessment supports intervention to reduce ship emissions in the GMR. Local strategies to limit the sulfur content of fuel would reduce exposure and will become increasingly beneficial as the shipping industry expands. A requirement for use of 0.1% sulfur fuel by ships within 300km of Sydney would provide more than twice the mortality benefit of a requirement for ships to use 0.1% sulfur fuel at berth.

Ship emissions and their externalities at the container terminal of piraeus - Greece

Ship exhaust emission inventories and their associated externalities constitute valuableinformation resources towards policy making and management of the influence exerted by shipping on airquality. To this extent, the container terminal at the Greek Port of Piraeus by virtue of its shipping significanceand its urbanised character was selected in order to provide an estimation of the emissions produced by theship activity within the terminal and to monetarise their adverse effects upon the environment and the localpopulation in particular. With reference to the year 2006, the relevant annual emission inventory generatedduring in-port ship manoeuvring and at berth was found to be equal to 16,104 tons, divided into 294, 264,15,504, 16.5 and 26.4 tons of NOx, SO2, CO2, HC and PM, respectively. The overall damage of theseemissions was estimated to be around 7.5 million euro, comprised by 2.15, 3.35, 0.6, 0.003 and 1.35 millioneuro of NOx, SO2, CO2, HC and PM, respectively. The findings of this work, along with similar studiesrecently conducted in neighbouring locations, provide useful information towards the completion of a detailedand accurate picture of ship exhaust emissions and their externalities within the region of the easternMediterranean.

Impact of emissions from shipping, land, and the ocean on stratocumulus cloud water elemental composition during the 2011 E-PEACE field campaign

This study reports on cloud water chemical and pH measurements off the California coast during the July–August 2011 Eastern Pacific Emitted Aerosol Cloud Experiment (E-PEACE). Eighty two cloud water samples were collected by a slotted-rod cloud water collector protruding above the Center for Interdisciplinary Remotely-Piloted Aircraft Studies (CIRPAS) Twin Otter in boundary layer stratocumulus clouds impacted to varying degrees by ocean-derived emissions, ship exhaust, and land emissions. Cloud water pH ranged between 2.92 and 7.58, with an average of 4.46. Peak pH values were observed north of San Francisco, simultaneous with the highest concentrations of Si, B, and Cs, and air masses originating over land. The lowest pH values were observed south of San Francisco due to ship emissions resulting in the highest concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, V, Fe, Al, P, Cd, Ti, Sb, P, and Mn. Many of these species act as important agents in aqueous-phase reactions in cloud drops and are critical ocean micronutrients after subsequent wet deposition in an ocean system that can be nutrient-limited. E-PEACE measurements suggest that conditions in the California coastal zone region can promote the conversion of micronutrients to more soluble forms, if they are not already, due to acidic cloud water conditions, the ubiquity of important organic agents such as oxalic acid, and the persistence of stratocumulus clouds to allow for continuous cloud processing.

Ship Generated Exhaust Emissions and Their Externalities for Greece

Amidst growing international awareness on the impact ship exhaust emissions on climate and air quality, the case of Greece is of particular interest because the dense ship traffic within the Greek seas directly imposes the impact of its exhaust emission pollutants (NOX, SO2 and PM) upon the highly populated, physically sensitive and culturally precious Greek coastline, as well as upon the land and seas of Greece in general, whereas the contribution of Greece in the global CO2 inventory at a time of climatic change awareness cannot be ignored. With regard to the shipping activity within the Greek seas, the utilization of the fuel-based methodology for domestic shipping and the activity-based methodology for international shipping shows that in 2008 the ship generated emissions of CO2, SO2, NOX and PM reached 7.4 million tons (7 million tons of CO2) and their externalities totaled 2.95 billion euro (155 million euro for CO2). Finally, the internalization of the emission externalities of domestic shipping was found to produce an increase of 12.96 and 2.71 euro per passenger and transported ton of cargo, respectively.

Cost assessment of ship emission reduction methods at berth: the case of the Port of Piraeus, Greece

This paper addresses the problem of ship exhaust emissions at the Port of Piraeus and undertakes the challenge of finding a cost-effective option for its reduction according to the upcoming requirements of the 2005/33/EU Directive, through analysis of port traffic data and the utilisation of the experience gained through previous studies in this field. The Port of Piraeus makes a particularly suitable reference for this type of work, since it is one of the busiest and highly urbanised ports in the world. It is shown that cruise ships calling at Piraeus fulfill the criteria of selection for such an exercise by virtue of their frequency of calling, berth power requirements and time spent at berth. It was found that, according to current practice, cruise ships at berth consume 11 034 tons of fuel and produce 620.1 tons of NOX, 274.8 tons of SO2 and 20.7 tons of PM, totalling to 915.6 tons of exhaust emissions per year. This represents an overall annual cost of 21 million euro, divided between private (bunkering) and external (emission damage) costs by 19.4% and 80.6%, respectively. With regard to the upcoming EU requirements for ship power at berth, it was found that, irrespective of whether operating on ultralow-sulphur (0.1% sulphur) fuel or on shore-side electricity, a sizeable reduction in emissions and associated external costs is achieved, whereas private costs were always higher than those of the current practice. Comparing the two options, it was further found that the shore-side electricity presents the lowest external costs but highest private costs, whereas the overall costs are around 25% lower than the onboard use of ultralow-sulphur fuel.

Ship emissions and their externalities for Greece

The existing and emerging international and European policy framework for the reduction of ship exhaust emissions dictates the need to produce reliable national, regional and global inventories in order to monitor emission trends and consequently provide the necessary support for future policy making. Furthermore, the inventories of ship exhaust emissions constitute the basis upon which their external costs are estimated in an attempt to highlight the economic burden they impose upon the society and facilitate the cost–benefit analysis of the proposed emission abatement technologies, operational measures and market-based instruments prior to their implementation. The case of Greece is of particular interest mainly because the dense ship traffic within the Greek seas directly imposes the impact of its exhaust emission pollutants (NO x, SO 2 and PM) upon the highly populated, physically sensitive and culturally precious Greek coastline, as well as upon the land and seas of Greece in general, whereas the contribution of Greece in the global CO 2 inventory at a time of climatic change awareness cannot be ignored. In this context, this paper presents the contribution of Greece in ship exhaust emissions of CO 2, NO x, SO 2 and PM from domestic and international shipping over the last 25 years (1984–2008), utilizing the fuel-based (fuel sales) emission methodology. Furthermore, the ship exhaust emissions generated within the Greek seas and their externalities are estimated for the year 2008, through utilizing the fuel-based (fuel sales) approach for domestic shipping and the activity-based (ship traffic) approach for international shipping. On this basis, it was found that during the 1984 to 2008 period the fuel-based (fuel sales) ship emission inventory for Greece increased at an average annual rate of 2.85%. In 2008, the CO 2, NO x, SO 2 and PM emissions reached 12.9 million tons (of which 12.4 million tons of CO 2) and their externalities were found to be around 3.1 billion euro. With regard to shipping within the Greek seas, the utilization of the fuel-based (fuel sales) analysis for domestic shipping and the activity-based (ship traffic) analysis for international shipping shows that the ship-generated emissions reached 7.4 million tons (of which 7 million tons of CO 2) and their externalities were estimated at 2.95 billion euro. Finally, the internalization of external costs for domestic shipping was found to produce an increase of 12.96 and 2.71 euro per passenger and transported ton, respectively.

Particle Emissions from Ships: Dependence on Fuel Type

This paper presents the results of field emission measurements that have been carried out on the 4500-kW four-stroke main engine on-board a product tanker. Two fuel qualities—heavy fuel oil (HFO) and marine gas oil (MGO)—have been tested on the same engine for comparable load settings. A fuel switch within the marine sector is approaching and the aim of this study is to draw initial conclusions on the subsequent effects on ship exhaust gas composition and emission factors with a focus on particles. Measurements on exhaust gas concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), total hydro-carbons (HCs), and particulate matter (PM) were conducted. The gases, except SO2, did not show any major differences between the fuels. Specific PM emissions were generally higher for HFO than for MGO; however, for the smallest size-fraction measured containing particles 0.30–0.40 µm in diameter, the opposite is observed. This finding emphasizes that to minimize negative health effects of particles from ships, further regulation may be needed to reduce small-sized particles; a fuel shift to low sulfur fuel alone does not seem to accomplish this reduction. The average of this and previously published data from on-board studies on particle emissions from ships results in emissions factors of 0.33 and 1.34 g/kWh for marine distillate oil (MDO) and HFO, respectively. Accounting for 1 standard deviation in each direction from the average values gives a range of 0.18–0.48 g/kWh for MDO and 0.56–2.12 g/kWh for HFO.