Shia Research Articles

"Duh u svetu bez duha" - Fukoovo tumačenje Iranske revolucije i otpor zapadnoj modernosti

In this article, we analyze Foucault's research of the Iranian Revolution, conducted at the end of 1978. This research has made Foucault the target of numerous criticisms from his contemporaries, while later interpreters of his work have tried in various ways to understand how this research relates to the rest of his oeuvre. A review of the relevant literature shows that there are different currents in interpreting the place that the study of the Iranian Revolution has in Foucault's work. One of these currents argues that Foucault was "seduced" by the "irrational" aspects of Islam because his theoretical and epistemological standpoints inherently contain anti-Enlightenment aspects. A certain number of authors also agree on the interpretation that sees inconsistency in Foucault's study of the Iranian Revolution, as they believe that at this point, he abandons his understanding of power as a totalizing mechanism and introduces the idea of a free acting subject. We will attempt to show that both currents miss the most important aspect of Foucault's research of the Iranian Revolution, which is the way this research fits into his academic interests at that time. Specifically, we will try to locate his study of the Iranian Revolution within the framework of his academic research in the late 1970s, as well as show how the socio-political context of France at that time influenced his work. We will start the article by examining the relationship between French left-leaning intellectuals and the French Communist Party during this period, as well as their stance on the coalition between the French Communist Party and the Socialist Party. We will show that due to the influence of cooperation with Maoist organizations and his participation in the student revolt of 1968, Foucault developed a negative attitude towards the Stalinist orientations of the French Communist Party and therefore at that time tries to develop a theoretical framework for a non-Marxist understanding of macro-social reality. In such a context, Foucault develops his theory of "governmentality", which refers to the specific logic of social relations that regulates the institutions of society in a given historical period. The set of institutions and social relations that governmentality regulates he calls a "dispositive". Foucault's research leads him to the conclusion that the dispositive regulating contemporary society is guided by the logic he calls "pastoral governmentality", claiming that it involves regulating individuals' actions through their dimension of subjectivity, i.e., through the way they relate to themselves and manage their behavior. Furthermore, he demonstrates how this logic, rooted in the Catholic Church, extends to other social institutions from the seventeenth century and becomes associated with the capitalist mode of production in the eighteenth century. It then assumes a role in regulating individuals' subjectivity in accordance with the concept of the individual as homo economicus. Aligning with his concept of governmentality, Foucault develops the notion of "counter-conduct" as a form of resistance to pastoral governmentality. This idea involves rejecting the prescribed model of subjectivity and, consequently, developing practices that transcend the power relations shaped by pastoral governmentality. We will demonstrate that Foucault's research of the Iranian Revolution serves as a real-time, practical test of his idea of counter-conduct. Namely, he claimed that the reforms of the Iranian Shah aimed at establishing a dispositive guided by the pastoral logic of governmentality. Therefore, he sees the Iranian Revolution as a collective revolt against the dispositive that has been dominant in Western countries since the seventeenth century. In his study of the Iranian Revolution, he is particularly interested in the role of Shia Islam in regulating practices of resistance. He sees Shiism as the discourse through which the Iranian Revolution as a collective form of counter-conduct is coordinated and argues that this form of Islam allows revolutionaries to transform their subjectivity by rejecting the model of subjectivity prescribed by pastoral governmentality. Finally, the article concludes with a review of two ways in which the study of the Iranian Revolution fundamentally affects Foucault's work. The first way involves a shift in the focus of his research, which from 1979. becomes centered on the phenomenon of subjectivity. Thus, during the 1980s, Foucault's work involves exploring various models of subjectivity in the history of Western culture. The second influence of the Iranian Revolution can be observed in Foucault's renewed focus on the concept and phenomenon of the Enlightenment.

Muta Marriage in Islam: Understanding the Practice, Controversies, and Significance

Marriage is a social contract between husband and wife for their future life with responsibilities, right and duties. Islam does not rule out the dissolution of marriage as a last resort for estranged couples. A Muta marriage only lasts for a specified period of time. This article examines the legitimacy of Muta marriage, a popular practice among Shia Muslims, practice, controversies and significance. It discusses the legality of children, inheritance, and divorce, as well as the link between prostitution and Muta marriage. Muta marriage is practiced to avoid persecution and find pleasure, particularly for males, while making women’s lives miserable and shameful. The research is based on a qualitative study, focusing on the general situation of Muta marriage, with in-depth interviews and library research method. The study focuses on the historical analysis of the Muta marriage system, with anonymous respondents referred to as Res.1 through Res.3. on the demand of respondents. Other aspects of the subject topic are not addressed in the research. This article aims to shed light on Muta marriage by exploring its historical context, purpose, controversies, and its place in modern Muslim societies.

İran’ın Avrupa ile İlişkilerinde Şiilik Boyutu: Almanya-Fransa-İngiltere Örneği

The phenomenon of religion appears as a multidimensional element in terms of individual, society and state. It has effects on people individually as well as in the context of social and international relations. In terms of states, religion appears as a phenomenon that affects and determines the domestic and foreign policies of states. Especially in the 21st century, we see that religion has begun to affect international relations in various areas. Another area where International Relations has begun to establish relations in recent years has been religion. Especially when foreign policy decision-making processes are examined, it is seen that religious beliefs, religion-based organizations and non-governmental organizations are effective in the decision-making processes of state administrators. The issue of Islamic Sects, and Shi’ism in particular, has been a much-discussed phenomenon in recent years due to its global and regional effects. Along with the Persian perspective inherited from the Persian Empire, Shi'ism has significantly influenced and continues to influence the geopolitical and geocultural education of today's Iran. With its politicization, Shiism has become one of the factors that play an important role in the creation and preservation of Iran's national identity, perhaps the most important. In this context, Iranian Shiism, which creates a socio-cultural system different from other civilizations around it, has become the main determinant on the security and foreign policy of today's Iran by intertwining with Persian nationalism since the reign of Shah Ismail. Iran has influenced Shiite communities in various regions - the Middle East, Africa - Central Asia - through its Shiite proxies, or has worked to Shiite the promising masses in the political field. Iran also has an influence on Shiite Muslims in Europe. Its relationship with the Shiite communities here appears as an important element in Iran's relations with European countries in the context of foreign policy. Shiite activities in Germany are carried out through an association in Hamburg, where Iranian business people have been living for many years. The Islamic Center of Hamburg describes itself as the "case representative" of the Shiites in Europe, especially in Germany. The concentration of Shiites and organizations in Germany in a single center is entirely in line with Iran's aim of "uniting the Shiites of the world under its rule and spreading Shiism (the belief in velayat-e faqih) from a single center". Approximately 200,000 Shiites live in France. Ten associations and cultural centers, which have been identified as carrying out religious activities on the basis of Shiism, are active in the country on behalf of Iran. Shiites currently constitute 10% of the total number of Muslims in the UK. Persian community centers have been established in the UK since the 1980s. Iranian individuals have established associations in the UK in many fields such as trade, health, culture and religion. It is estimated that these associations aim to spread Shiism among Muslim communities in the UK. Iran is trying to be active in Europe through these groups and Shiism is an important element in its relations with Europe.

Astrolabe by Bulhomal and Pīr Bakhsh of 1841 CE: A Unique Testimonial to an Intercultural Collaboration

From the middle of the sixteenth century up to the end of the seventeenth, Lahore was the leading centre where Allāhdād and his descendants produced a large number of exquisitely crafted astrolabes, with legends and numerals in Arabic. In the same period, Sanskrit astrolabes with legends in Sanskrit and numerals in Devanagari were made sporadically in Rajasthan-Gujarat region. Then in the eighteenth century, the production of both types of astrolabes ended abruptly for various reasons. Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, however, both these traditions came together in the work of Bulhomal, who created some 27 instruments of diverse kinds. Entirely different from these is a large astrolabe in the creation of which people of different faiths collaborated. The astrolabe was commissioned by Mawlwī Ghulām Muḥammad, a Sunni Muslim, who held an important position at the court of the Sikh rulers of the princely state of Kapurthala, for the sake of Mubārak cAlī Khān who appears to be a member of an influential Shia Muslim family; it was designed by Bulhomal, a Hindu, and was fabricated by Pīr Bakhsh, a Muslim. Thus this astrolabe is a laudable example of intercultural collaboration. The present paper offers a full technical description against the background of Bulhomal’s other work.

International Congress on Health in Arbaeen; to strengthen inter-departmental coordination and synergy to reduce the obstacles in providing health services to the pilgrims.

The 3rd international congress on Arbaeen in health was a significant event held from 2nd to 4th August, 2023 in Tehran, Iran. It brought together experts and scholars from nine countries to discuss and exchange knowledge on health-related issues during the Arbaeen pilgrimage. This congress provided a platform to explore innovative approaches, research findings, and best practices in promoting health and well-being among Arbaeen pilgrims. It also facilitated networking and collaboration among healthcare professionals, researchers, and policymakers, leading to the development of effective strategies for ensuring the health and safety of the millions of pilgrims participating in the Arbaeen pilgrimage. This congress will play a crucial role in advancing healthcare practices and enhancing the overall pilgrimage experience. The Arbaeen pilgrimage, which is one of the largest religious gatherings in the world, takes place 40 days after Ashura, the martyrdom anniversary of Imam Hussain (AS), the third Imam of Shia Muslims, and the grandson of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Each year, a huge crowd of people flock to Karbala, where the holy shrine of Imam Hussein (AS) is located, to perform mourning rituals. This year Arbaeen was on September 6,2023. Keywords: Arbaeen, Congress, Health, Hilal e Ahmar, Karbala, Imam e Hussain, Pilgrim

Arab Sunni-Wahhâbism and Shia Iran: From Sectarian Conflict, to the Domination of the Gulf Region

Discussions regarding the conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran in the Middle East have always been framed as a sectarian conflict between Sunni-Wahhābism and Shia. The study data presented in this article provide a distinct, exhaustive empirical picture. This study aims to present a conceptual framework for the relationship between religious theology in Islam (Sunni Wahhābi and Shia-ism) and the competitive conflict in the Gulf region, the struggle for dominance in the Middle East region, as a variable for the protracted conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran, and to predict the future of relations between the two countries following the foreign policy of Muhammad bin Salman. A review of the discussion employing an inductive library research methodology. To generalize a deviation from purely accidental phenomena. In order to analyze this topic in greater depth, the author borrows theory from Max Weber regarding the protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism by placing religion as a belief system and state conflict as a structure of social group action. This study's findings assume that the issue of Sunni-Shia sectarianism is religious propaganda used to win the hegemonic competition in the struggle for territory and dominance in the Gulf region of the Middle East. Before the reign of Muhammad bin Salman, this condition had not changed substantially. In Weber's framework, there has been a distinction known as "ethical inter-minism" between two ethics. On the one hand, the structure of moral ethics is founded on the moral values of Sunni and Shia Islam. But on the political side, moral responsibility confronts the obligation to maintain the disintegration of the nation and state, which is a means to wage war.

Imam Mahdi in Sunni Tradition: Differences in Beliefs and Interpretations

The concept of Imam Mahdi holds a special place, but differences in beliefs and interpretations regarding Imam Mahdi within the Sunni community have led to confusion and even disputes among Muslims. To gain a deeper understanding of how Imam Mahdi is viewed from the perspective of Sunni tradition and the differences in beliefs and interpretations, this research will delve into the complexities of these views and identify different frameworks of understanding. This will help us appreciate the diversity of Islamic thought and how these understandings impact religious practices and the perspectives of Muslim communities. Furthermore, it will underscore the importance of inter-sectarian dialogue in today's increasingly complex Muslim society. The research method employed in this study is a literature review, based on the analysis and synthesis of relevant literature on the specific research topic. Titled "Imam Mahdi in the Perspective of Sunni Tradition: Differences in Beliefs and Interpretations," the findings suggest that al-Mahdi plays a crucial role in elevating the status of Islam and the Muslim community to their true potential. This will enable the Muslim community to shield itself from the negative effects of materialistic modernization and blind imitation of traditions that may not align with Islamic values, as conveyed by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The term 'Mahdi' refers to an eschatological figure in Islam, believed to come in the end times to establish justice throughout the world. In the Shia Islamic perspective, Mahdi is the twelfth Imam, and according to their beliefs, he will appear at some point in the future.

YUSUF AL-QARADAWI'S PERSPECTIVE ON FIQH AQALLIYAT IN A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY

Fiqh al-aqalliyyat plays an important role in addressing the unique challenges faced by Muslim minority communities in multicultural societies. In multicultural societies, where diversity and multiple cultures are embraced, issues relating to values, culture, and customs can lead to discrimination or marginalisation of certain groups. Therefore, it is important to promote equality, inclusion and non-discrimination, which allows all individuals to feel valued, respected and have equal access to opportunities. Muslim minority groups, such as Shia Muslims and Ahmadiyya Muslims, face particular challenges in a multicultural society like Indonesia. The study of fiqh al-aqalliyyat in multicultural societies, particularly in Indonesia, aims to understand how Islamic law is applied to Muslim minority communities and their religious practices. Qualitative research using concept analysis is used to examine fiqh al-aqalliyyat from the perspective of Yusuf al-Qaradawi. Data source triangulation and content analysis techniques were used to collect and analyse primary and secondary data. In conclusion, fiqh al-aqalliyyat plays an important role in addressing the challenges faced by Muslim minority communities in a multicultural society. By adopting a comprehensive approach that considers various aspects of their lives, fiqh al-aqalliyyat aims to promote the rights, obligations, and welfare of minority groups while respecting Islamic principles. The development and application of fiqh al-aqalliyyat are constantly evolving to adapt to the ever-changing realities and contexts faced by Muslim minority communities.

Towards a Postsecular Shia Rhetoric – the Discursive Strategies of Transnational Online Network of Shia Muslims in India

Abstract Much of the scholarly discussions on the nexus between secular worldview and discourse on Islam have depicted a rather homogeneous image of ‘postsecular Islam’ by overlooking the heterogeneity and changing nature of communications on Islam. In most cases, the postsecular rhetoric of minority sects in Islam, such as Shia Islam, is rarely mentioned. This study aims to offer a more empirical and context-oriented understanding of the emerging postsecular turn in the contemporary narratives of Shia Islam due to its encounter with secular ideologies, digital media, and popular culture. To do so, it examines dominant discursive features of a transnational Shia religious network – ‘Who is Hussain’. The analysis focuses on exploring new interpretations and representations of Shi’i messages online. Four main types of narrative features were found: a postsecular contextualization of Shi’i religious events, a secular call for action infused with Shi’i moral motivations, promoting postsecular humanitarian responses, and translating Shi’i religiosity into citizenry engagement. The language deployed by the Facebook page of this network to translate religious ideas denotes a high degree of malleability. This open hermeneutic margin, this study finds, allows the knowledge producers to develop a postsecular narrative of Shi’ism that has the potential to travel beyond the confines of religious boundaries by animating new debates internationally.

Историко-правовые аспекты создания Ассамблеи по определению государственной целесообразности в Исламской Республике Иран

The Islamic Republic of Iran (hereinafter — Iran) is a unique state. It combines the functioning of republican institutions of state power along with religious specifics, due to the fact that in this state there is an official religion — Shia Islam of the Jafarite persuasion. When the Iranian constitution was created after the Islamic revolution of 1979, it fixed the presence of a religious-constitutional control of a body called the Guardian Council over the laws adopted by the parliament, which is one of the main manifestations of the Islamic nature of state power in Iran at the present time. It was this specificity of the state mechanism of Iran that served as the reason for the creation of the Expediency Discernment Council, because the practice of legislative activity has shown that sometimes the Parliament — the Islamic Consultative Assembly — and the Supervisory Board are not able to reach a compromise on about the law being passed. And this, in turn, led to a crisis in public administration, since, on the one hand, the need for legislative regulation of public relations remained, and on the other hand, there were no legal mechanisms for forcing the Parliament and the Guardian Council to make a balanced decision.

Understanding of the Qur'an of the Shia Sect

Şîa mezhebinin ortaya çıkışı ve temel düşünce yapısı siyasî içeriklidir. Hz. Peygamber’in vefatından hemen sonra başlayan “halifenin kim olacağı” sorunu giderek büyümüş ve farklı siyasî-dinî düşüncelerin oluşmasına zemin hazırlamıştı. Siyasî alanda başlayan tartışmalar dinî zemine kaymış ve farklı dinî-siyasî gruplar ortaya çıkmıştı. Şîa’nın Kur’an’a yaklaşımı da siyasi olmuştur. Kur’an anlayışları, siyasi görüşlerinin gölgesinde kalmıştır. Önce kendi siyasi düşüncelerine göre inanç esasları oluşturmuş, daha sonra da bu inanç esaslarına göre Kur’an’ı açıklamaya çalışmışlardır. Şîa’nın Kur’an’a yaklaşımlarını tek bir şekilde değerlendirmek mümkün değildir. Diğer siyasî mezheplerde olduğu gibi Şîa mezhebinde de zaman içerisinde bazı değişiklikler yaşanmıştır. İlk dönem Şîa düşüncesi ile sonraki dönemi birbirinden farklılıklar göstermektedir. Şîa’ya göre Kur’an’ın her âyeti anlaşılma bakımından aynı seviyede olmayıp kendi arasında dörde ayrılır. Kur’an’da yer alan bazı bilgiler sadece Allah’a aittir. Ondan başka kimse onları bilemez. Bazı bilgileri Arapça bilen herkes bilebilir. Bunları bilmek için Arapça bilmek yeterlidir. Bazı bilgiler Kur’an’da mücmel olarak bulunurlar. Bunları bilmek için sadece Arapça bilmek yeterli değildir. Bazı bilgileri ise sadece Hz. Peygamber ve imamlar bilir. Şîa’nın içerisinde Kur’an’ın değiştirildiğine inananlar olduğu gibi bunu kabul etmeyenler de bulunmaktadır. Tahrifin varlığını kabul edenler bilhassa da Ehl-i Beyt hakkında birçok ayetin Kur’an’dan çıkarıldığına inanırlar. Şîa men-supları arasında Kur’an’ın bizzat Hz. Peygamber hayatta iken toplatılarak bir kitap haline getirildiğine inanalar olduğu gibi bunun Hz. Peygamberin vefatından sonra yapıldığını kabul edenler de bulunmaktadır. Her ayetin bir zahiri bir de batıni manası olduğunu kabul ederler. Önemli olan ise batınî manalardır. Bunu da sadece imamlar bilebilir. Kendi görüşlerine uyan âyetleri muhkem kabul ederlerken diğerlerini de müteşabih olarak kabul etmiş-lerdir. Onlara göre tüm kıraatlar ictihad mahsulüdür.

Religious Moderation of Islamic Religious Education Teacher in Pekanbaru City Against Minority of Islamic Mazhab

The research aims to determine the religious moderation of Islamic religious education (PAI) teachers towards minority Islamic schools of thought. Quantitative research methods, data collection techniques with questionnaires, and data analysis are descriptive-analytic with percentages (%). Three aspects are examined: views on majority Muslims, Shia Islam, and Ahmadiyya, each netted with seven items (total of 21 items). All items have high validity (minimum alpha 0.05) and high reliability (r = 0.94 significant at alpha 0.01). Respondents to the study were 78 high school PAI teachers in the city of Pekanbaru. The study's results showed that most of the Pekanbaru PAI teachers failed to maintain Islamic moderation. They also failed to become preservers of Sunni Islam, which is moderate towards Shia and Ahmadiyya. If this attitude also occurs among Islamic Religious Education teachers in other areas, it is only natural that most students and university students are intolerant of Muslim minorities. Researchers recommend looking for learning models to eliminate negative prejudices and develop religious moderation among Muslims from different schools of thought.

Retracing Islamic Prohibition on Genetic Gestational Surrogacy (Uterine Service) for Married Couples

Assisted reproduction involving third party (sperm, ova or uterus) in the procreation has invited fierce debate amongst Muslim scholar’s world over and the two main theological schools of Islam; Shia and Sunni responded to it differently. In Shia Islam it is practice, while Sunni Islam prohibited it and this prohibition enjoys the endorsement of leading religious clergies (Ulemas) across spectrum. This paper opens up a novel paradigm with regards to prohibition on availing uterine service to gestate embryo created from the gametes of married intended couple for developmental purpose (genetic gestational surrogacy) from analogical and scientific reference in conjunction to Quranic citation; taking into consideration that wet nursing and gestational surrogacy both are societal services and share certain undeniable biogenesis characteristic. The argument is novel in our knowledge and has not been so comprehensively put forth in written form with such explicit scientific evidences before. The parallels between genetic gestational surrogacy and wet nursing/foster motherhood are discussed, with special reference to mainstream arguments of purity of lineage, sanctity (Hurmat) of surrogate women and sacredness of womb etc. The key aspects of gestational surrogacy and wet nursing are also elaborated alongside certain departure points between contemporary surrogacy and Islam inspired surrogacy.

A State Under Siege: Iran’s Survival Through Alter-Globalization and the Third Way

Alter-globalization comprises a set of civil society organizations that refute the methods and consequences of liberal globalization or globalized capitalism. At the same time, these organizations hope to achieve a different form of globalization or global economy than the existing ones. This article intends to shed light on Iran’s foreign and economic policies, which were established on the basis of the non-aligned state ideology. This ideology forced Iran to find a third way that was neither capitalist like the West nor socialist like the East, which allowed Iran’s domestic economic powers not only to concentrate on the main power but also to interfere less in foreign policy affairs. Based on Shia Islamic sources and interpretations, Iran’s unique ideology had to find a way to adopt globalized approaches vis-a-vis internal and regional turmoil. This article concludes that Iran created its own path based on this Islamic interpretation and involved domestic forces committed to the revolution’s ideological path, which, nevertheless, found detours that would let it take part in the globalized economy and, in the end, categorize Iran as an alter-globalized state.

Takwil Al-Qur’an Syi’ah Isma’iliyah: Studi Penakwilan pada Kisah Nabi Isa As

This research is about the Shia Sect. The development of Shia is divided into three, including: Itsna 'Asyariyah, Isma'iliyah and Zaidiyah. Shia Isma'iliyah is the second largest sect. The development of Shia is very rapid but requires a long and complex time. The interpretation that is very popular among the Shia is the Tafsir Asas al-Ta'wil. The purpose of this research is to popularize the rarely known Shia interpretation. This research provides an overview of the Ismaili Shia figures, the meaning of ta’wil and the difference with the term tafsir. Then, covered with examples of interpretation of the story of Prophet Isa As. This type of research is classified as qualitative by relying on written data. The result of this research and discussion is that the book Tafsir Asas al-Ta’wil by al-Nu'man ibn Hayyun is the basic basis of mysticism philosophy as an understanding of a nature contained in the Al-Qur’an. It is divided into six sections which interpret the stories of the prophets in the Al-Qur’an, including: Prophet Adam, Prophet Noah, Prophet Abraham, Prophet Musa, Prophet Isa, and Prophet Muhammad SAW. The concept of ta'wil according to Syi'ah Isma'iliyah is an attempt to find the inner meaning or sign, essence, and truth (meaning) that is hidden behind the lafadz. There are many shortcomings in this research. Therefore, Drivers of Islamic Studies are expected to continue to deepen research related to the Ismaili Shia Theme.

Minority, Marginality and Modernity

Abstract Ismailis are a minority community within the larger world of Sunni and Shia Muslims and were persecuted by conservative Muslim religious and political leaders. They were marginalised in the social, cultural and political arena and were forced to dissimulate their faith in order to avoid adversarial confrontation by hostile forces. Scholars and writers in the Muslim world avoided any objective and candid discussions of the community fearing that they might encounter severe reprisal by their own dogmatic and biased leaders. In Afghanistan, the Hazara Ismailis experienced discrimination, marginalisation and repression because of their ethnicity and religious beliefs. They endured years of political, social, cultural and economic deprivation. However, their situation improved after the downfall of the Taliban rule in late 2001. Although Ismailis, for the most part, were treated as footnotes in most historical literature, they became the main topic of historical and development literature after their spiritual leader, His Highness the Aga Khan iv and present Imam of the Ismailis worldwide, got involved in the reconstruction of Afghanistan’s war-torn infrastructures. Parallel to this endeavour, the Aga Khan also abolished the hereditary system of leadership in the Ismaili community, established modern institutions and appointed a new generation of leaders to guide the community.

Iranian Religious-political Development in Light of Three Epochal Transformations

Three epoch-making upheavals have had a tremendous impact on theIranian polity throughout its long history. These upheavals have radicallyreshaped and restructured the society in terms of its religio-politicaland jurisprudential institutions. The invasion of the Arabs, the rise ofSafavids, and the Islamic Revolution, respectively, changed the religionof the Iranians from Zoroastrianism to Islam, made Shiite Islam theofficial religion in the whole of Iran, and established the theocraticstate based on Shiism. As the first phase begins with the prevalence ofIslam in Iran, the body of discussion in this paper revolves around theIslam-inspired norms that have shaped the religio-political frameworkof the country. The paper seeks to highlight these seasons by analyzingthe systematic-normative outcomes that the Iranian society witnessed.

The Islamic State, Shia religious clerics and the mobilisation of Shia militias in Iraq and Syria

ABSTRACT This article focuses on the Islamic State’s (IS) attacks on Shia communities and their holy sites across Iraq and Syria and explores the responses of key Shia religious and political leaders. It demonstrates how these Shia elites utilised sophisticated mobilisation frames to admonish their followers to take up arms against the IS. To do so, these Shia elites drew on Shia religious symbols and historical events that emphasise Shia suffering at the hands of Sunni forces and highlighted the urgent need to protect Shia communities and their holy sites. The article also demonstrates how these mobilisation frames were malleable in the hands of different Shia elites and were instrumentalized to advance both national (defend the country) and transnational goals (defend Shia Islam). The article concludes by noting that this study of the complex motives underpinning Shia mobilisation has implications beyond the case of contemporary Iraq and Syria.

Thinking about Islamic legal traditions in multicultural contexts

ABSTRACT Faced by the apparent difference between legal traditions, how should scholars and policy makers assess their compatibility or incompatibility? What criteria should be used to adjudge the commensurability, or even the elements of incongruity, between traditions that have developed in different cultural, social and economic circumstances? This article argues for a shift from the way that much of the scholarship on Islamic legal traditions in Western polities pursues these questions. First, scholars assess Islamic legal traditions by explicitly or implicitly assessing their compliance with a contingent Western rendition of the rule of law. Second, comparisons tend to focus on a Western legal theoretical priority of the ‘rule’ itself, whereby conceptualisations of law are parsed out using an analytical infrastructure particular to the contingent history of the nation state. Such approaches may usefully assess migrant traditions’ political compatibility with a benevolent or hegemonic Western legal regime. Indeed, they may be defended philosophically on the basis of ‘difference blind’ legal arrangements or some kind of minimal secular baseline of governance. However, these approaches are insufficient for addressing the prior question of commensurability. Based on ethnographic data from the Shia Muslim tradition of legal training, I offer a brief account of two ‘repertoires of justification’ standing askance from this anyhow contingent rendition of Western law. This account serves as a counterpoint to rule based approaches, demonstrating why commensurability should be assessed through an attentiveness to the alternative logics of other legal traditions.

Surrogacy in Indonesia: The comparative legality and Islamic perspective

Reproductive health technology allows married couples who experience infertility to have a child through assisted reproductive technology (ART), such as the in vitro fertilisation (IVF) process. The transfer of the extracted embryo to the woman’s womb is called surrogacy technology (gestational surrogacy). The legality of the practice of surrogacy is still questionable, both on a national and international level. This research discussed the legality of surrogacy in some religious countries, focusing on Indonesia. This research used normative juridical research methods or literature review through a comparative religion-legal approach. This study indicated that most do not have a specific legal instrument regarding surrogacy practice. International law also does not have a standard legal instrument regarding the legality of surrogacy. Legality is determined by each religious country’s national laws and customs. For example, Indonesian law prohibits this practice implicitly under Law No. 36 of 2009 concerning health. The United Kingdom legalised surrogacy through the Surrogacy Agreement Act 1985, which was amended to the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act 2008, Greece through the Greek Legislation Law 3089/2002 and Law 3305/2005, and India through the 2019 Surrogacy Regulation Bill. Those countries have their limitations and characteristics that rule surrogacy. Surrogacy is indeed a technological advancement in the health sector. However, for countries that are influenced much by religion, technological advances sometimes conflict with the culture and the belief that has long been followed by most of the population. For Indonesia, the largest of Sunni Islam ruled surrogacy against the law. Next, Iran, as a Shia Islam country, ruled that surrogacy is a legal action.Contribution: The research provided information and knowledge regarding the different settings of surrogacy practice. Most religious countries bravely rejected or put strict limits on the practice of surrogacy.