Shia Research Articles

Karbala in London: Battle of Expressions of Ashura Ritual Commemorations among Twelver Shia Muslims of South Asian Background

Abstract The roots of the struggle for authority among various groups of Twelver Shias of South Asian background living in London revolves around the idea of what is ‘true and authentic’ Shia Islam. The theological and political genealogy of this power struggle can be traced by examining the history of Shia Islam in South Asia. This article provides historical analyses and ethnographic accounts of Shia Islam and how it is practised in London. It investigates the influence of London-based Iranian and Iraqi Shia transnational networks on South Asian Hussainias and those who attend them. While some London-based Shias of South Asian origin conform to the Iran-backed reformist versions of globally standardised ritual commemoration of Ashura, others detest this and search for religious reinterpretations that assert South Asian ways of commemorating the Ashura ritual.

A Minority in the Making: The Shia Muslim Community in Norway

Abstract In this article, we document and discuss transnational links and localising dynamics that are relevant for a young Shia community in the making in Norway. The Shia community is a minority in the Muslim minority population of Norway, and has been an almost neglected field of research. With this article we therefore aim to add knowledge to this field. First we provide an overview of the development of Shiism in Norway, and then we examine what kind of dynamics have come to the fore in ritual practice and in shaping a Norwegian Shia Muslim identity, through institutionalisation, knowledge, production and visibility.

Towards a United Shia Youth Community

Abstract Twelver Shia Muslims in the Netherlands, a minority within the Muslim minority, are living as an ethnically fragmented community that is organised along ethnic lines.1 In recent years, Shia young adults started to realise that maintaining the Shia tradition in the Netherlands requires uniting on what binds them—Shia belief and the Dutch language. In 2011, on the occasion of Muharram, youth organisations organised the first joint Dutch-language gathering for all Shia youth in the Netherlands. In order to fulfill the widely felt need of youth for knowledge about Shia Islam and its practice in the Dutch context, the structure of this gathering was different from traditional Muharram gatherings. In the absence of a Dutch-speaking religiously trained authority familiar with the everyday Dutch life of Muslim youth, a youth leader fulfilled the role of lecturer. This article focuses on this Muharram gathering.

Mapping Shia Muslim Communities in Europe

AbstractThis article provides an introduction to the special issue onMapping Shia Muslim Communities in Europe.1 With six empirically rich case studies on Shia Muslim communities in various European countries, this issue intends: first, to illustrate the historical developments and emergence of the Shia presence in Europe; second, to highlight the local particularities of the various Shia communities within each nation state and demonstrate their transnational links; and third, to provide for the first time an empirical comparative study on the increasingly visible presence of Shia communities in Europe that fills an important gap in research on Muslims in Europe.

Shiite “Communities of Practice” in Germany

Abstract Although few in number, the various Shiite Muslim communities in Germany are highly diversified in terms of their linguistic, national and ethnic backgrounds and ritual practice. In order to come to terms with these multi-local actors and their specific articulations of Shiism, the article aimes at an analytical framework that integrates an open understanding of belonging: employing Leave and Wenger’s concept of “communities of practice”, it argues that a focus on common practice in which heterogeneous actors engage, enables us to grasp, on the one hand, the varying specific characteristics of different groups and, on the other, their mutual belonging to the wider Shiite field.

Shia armed groups in the Middle East And its impact on Iraq's political systems as a model

معظم الآراء السياسة تقول أن السبب الرئيس لظهور المليشيات في العراق ،هو نظام الحكم فيه، الذي أعتمدعلى الطائفية في بناء مؤسسات الدولة، والتكتل السياسي، وإستيراد الأعراق المختلفة ودمجها بالشعب، وتلاحظ مثل هذه السياسة تاريخياً في نظام الحكم الإسلامي ،اذ أستقدم الأعراق المختلفة للحكم كالأتراك، وكذلك مجيء المماليك في حكم الدولة العباسية في العصر الثاني والثالث، وأصبحت الميليشيات سمة من سمات الدولة العراقية الحديثة سواء خلال عقود الهيمنة البريطانية، أوخلال الحكم الملكي، أو عبر عقود الإستقلال الوطني وإعلان الحكم الجمهوري بعد ثورة 14 تموز 1958، وإلى يومنا هذا في ظل الإحتلال الأمريكي .

State-backed discrimination against Shia Muslims in Malaysia

ABSTRACTThis article traces the origins of legalized discrimination, religious hatred, and systematic marginalization of a community of Malaysian Muslims – the Shias – perpetuated in the name of Islam. It demonstrates how a central government-derived fatwa (religious legal opinion) banning Shi’ism and the propagation of Shia teachings in the country since 1996 has been used to justify a range of human rights violations, not limited to the religious freedom of this minority group. Apart from Syariah legislation, the state has utilized this fatwa alongside other tools, including the religious bureaucracy and the media, to persecute Shia in Malaysia. Anti-Shia efforts are also supported and propagated by non-state Islamists who often work hand-in-hand with state actors.

Assisted reproduction and Middle East kinship: a regional and religious comparison.

This article compares the use of assisted reproductive technology (ART) and resultant kinship formations in four Middle Eastern settings: the Sunni Muslim Arab world, the Sunni Muslim but officially 'secular' country of Turkey, Shia Muslim Iran and Jewish Israel. This four-way comparison reveals considerable similarities, as well as stark differences, in matters of Middle Eastern kinship and assisted reproduction. The permissions and restrictions on ART, often determined by religious decrees, may lead to counter-intuitive outcomes, many of which defy prevailing stereotypes about which parts of the Middle East are more 'progressive' or 'conservative'. Local considerations – be they social, cultural, economic, religious or political – have shaped the ways in which ART treatments are offered to, and received by, infertile couples in different parts of the Middle East. Yet, across the region, clerics, in dialogue with clinicians and patients, have paved the way for ART practices that have had significant implications for Middle Eastern kinship and family life.

Institutionalization of Shiite Muslim Life-Writing: The Iranian Historic Experience

Institutionalization of Shiite Muslim Life-Writing: The Iranian Historic Experience

Shia as Internal Others: A Salafi Rejection of the ‘Rejecters’

ABSTRACTConflict and polemic between Sunni Muslims and Shiites have a long history. In the contemporary era, this polemic has been accentuated by the conflictual situation in the Middle East, and it is also colouring the minority Muslim situation. This article is concerned with Islamic interpretations related to ‘othering’, taking as its main focus an analysis of publications on a Swedish Sunni website, ‘Maktabah Dâr-ul-Hadîth’, which has clear Salafi leanings. Reports show that Shiites currently feel threatened by Salafis in minority contexts and the material cited in this article ‘others’ Shiite Islam and Shiites (amongst others), creating a stereotypical image that may have the potential to influence sectarian violence in real life. Several of the texts on the website deal with theological issues concerning the alleged false beliefs of Shiites. However, the article does not focus on theological creed but rather on manhaj, the programme for action, that is, the behaviour towards Shiites that is recommended in various situations, such as at work, in greeting Shiites or being invited to a Shiite wedding, thus affecting everyday situations. The analysis looks into what kind of ‘othering’ is promoted and what effect this othering might have if put into practice.

ARE MUSLIMS LIARS? A MISSIOLOGICAL REFLECTION ON TAQIYYA

This article provides a brief treatment of the doctrine of taqiyya, or dissimulation, in Islam. Concerned primarily with current accusations raised rather brashly against Muslims, according to which the taqiyya is supposed to be a common daily practice that they implement in their lives, making them largely unworthy of trust, the present article seeks to bring some clarification into the matter. Given the brevity required for this article, we will content ourselves with a brief survey of the concept in the Qur’an and in Islamic Tafsir, followed with a short exploration of the way that taqiyya has been understood by a few major authorities in Shiite Islam, the group most often associated with the doctrine. The article will close with a brief missiological reflection on some implications of a proper understanding of the doctrine for the church today.

Spiritual interventions in Iran: A review article

Objectives: Although many studies have examined the effects of spiritual interventions, ambiguity of the model of them causes bias. This study aimed to achieve a picture of spiritual interventions in Iran as a Shiite Muslim country. Method: An advanced search was conducted in main Iranian and international databases using both the English and Persian keywords of spiritual intervention, spiritual care, spiritual therapy, spiritual support, and spirituality. Iranian studies that indexed until May 2016 and were related to the effects of spiritual therapies in clinical trials were selected. Results: Out of the 31selected articles, 17 were in Persianlanguage journals, and 14 were in English-language journals. The interventions that have presented in these articles were classified into three main categories: research-based interventions, mixed interventions and arbitrary interventions. Conclusion: No clear model for spiritual interventions can be extracted from Iranian studies. You can submit your Manuscripts at: https://symbiosisonlinepublishing.com/submitManuscript.php

Assisted reproductive technologies and the Iranian community attitude towards infertility

Since the late 1990s, assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) have been legitimized in Iran through an official religious endorsement. Iran, under the dominant authority of the Shia sect, is now the most enthusiastic adopter of ARTs in the Muslim world, permitting all forms of treatments, including third party donation. This study examined the public perception of assisted conception and its influence on the adoption of these methods in Iran. The study was questionnaire-based and conducted in 2012 in Shiraz, the most populated city in the south of Iran. It included 405 Iranian residents selected through the cluster sampling method. The results indicated that respondents did not support all types of assisted reproduction. Amongst modern infertility treatment methods, IVF (using husband’s sperm and wife’s egg) was the most widely accepted. Gestational surrogacy and the use of donated gametes were less accepted. Demographic variables including gender, marital status, age, education and employment status were linked to significant differences in public opinion. It was concluded that members of the public require better information about gamete donation and surrogacy, as this could shape infertile couples’ decision-making.

Iranian Shiite Muslim Near-Death Experiences: Features and Aftereffects Including Dispositional Gratitude

Article describing research to explore the near-death experiences (NDEs) of Iranian Shiite Muslim experiencers. It outlines the methods and results of the study and explains how the experiences compare to those of Western experiencers.

Interactions of Christians and Evangelists of Yazd with Muslims in the Qajar Era

The history of Yazd in Qajar era shows several political-social incidents in different periods which have greatly affected the social, cultural, economic and even physical historical-ancient life of the city. Investigating the interaction between Iranians and the residents from different religions during the aforementioned era is interest of the study. This interaction has experienced some fluctuations including peaceful friendships as well as brutal conflicts. The present research is a scientific-investigative effort to perform a historical, periodical, and at the same time documentary and analytical study on the extent, type and method of interactions of the majority of Yazd residents such as Shia Muslims, with the religious minority living in Yazd or non-local Christians temporary living in Yazd for the purpose of performing preaching and advertising programs in Yazd during the Qajar era. The researchers’ hypothesis is as follow: in the Qajar era there was a mutual communication, conflicts and correspondence between Christian minorities (evangelists) and Shia Muslims in Yazd most of which proves a relationship and peaceful co-existence between them. This study applies a comparative-historical methodology as well as examines the academic literature and field studies.

Non-understanding and Minority Formation in Iran

ABSTRACTTaking negative hermeneutics as an analytical frame, this article focuses on the way religious minorities are created in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Referring to the Qur’an, Khomeini’s utterances and the constitution, religious scholars and political scientists demonstrate their lack of understanding or purposeful misunderstanding of the quest for dignity made by members of those minorities. Instead, the authors under review refer to the status of the “protected minorities” as defined by Islam and allude to their obligations with regard to the Muslim majority. The official discourse in Iran depends on political imperatives and quite easily adapts to changing political contexts. Consequently, the Baha'i Faith can be treated as an organisation created by imperialists in order to destroy Islam, the Muslim world and Iran respectively. And at the same time, Baha’is can be considered apostates who want to destroy Shiite Islam from within in analogy to Zionism that is accused of destroying Judaism. In addition, conspiracy theories are quite helpful when it comes to misunderstanding and incomprehension.

Sociological Study of Mental Disorders: A Case Study in Arak

Background and Aim: According to the announcement of the WHO, mental Disorder is as important as physical health and is affected by a combination of social, psychological and biological components. This study aimed to explain the sociological grounds which affect the mental health of Arak's residents in 2017. Materials and Methods: This descriptive-analytic study was conducted on 15-64 year old population living in Arak. To determine the prevalence of mental disorders, general health questionnaire (GHQ-28) and determining the effective sociological parameters on them, questions from Durkheim and Merton's theories were used. The sample size was 384 using Cochran formula and data gathering was done using multi-stage cluster sampling. Data were analyzed using SPSS 23 software. Findings: Mean and SD of participants’ age was 34±13 years, mean and SD of household size was 1.5±4.5. 98.7% of participants were Shia, 72.9% were urban and 74% owned their home. The total prevalence of mental disorders was 28.9%: 23.31% in men and 34.55% in women. Moreover, the components of immigration, job status, social status, religion, ethnicity, structural and social pressures, family problems, congestion, anomy, traffic problems and social capital were shown to contribute to the risk of mental health and the occurrence of mental disorders. Conclusion: Regarding the high prevalence of mental disorders in this study, it is recommended that mediating institutions as ethical and legal entities be recognized by the government and try harder to reorganise and realize the individual rights and social cohesion. Please cite this article as: Tavakol M, Farahani H. Sociological Study of Mental Disorders: A Case Study in Arak. Bioethics Journal 2017; 7(26): 7-21.

Shi'ism in South East Asia: 'Alid Piety and Sectarian Constructions ed. by Chiara Formichi and R. Michael Feener

Reviewed by: Shi'ism in South East Asia: 'Alid Piety and Sectarian Constructions ed. by Chiara Formichi and R. Michael Feener Majid Daneshgar Majid Daneshgar, Michael Feener, Chiara Formichit, Shi'ism, 'Alid, South East Asian religion, Shia Islam, Islamic magic chiara formichi and r. michael feener, eds. Shi'ism in South East Asia: 'Alid Piety and Sectarian Constructions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Pp. xvi + 397. There have been many academic studies examining the history and literature of minorities (e.g., Shi'is) in South East Asia, most recently the present work, produced by Chiara Formichi and Michael Feener, a collection of essays originating in a workshop held in the Asia Research Institute of the National University of Singapore in 2010. This book would have much to offer a reader approaching it through the lens of Southeast Asian Studies; nevertheless, given the context of this review I decided to highlight its references to Islamic rituals. [End Page 404] The book is divided into four parts. Part One deals with the historical foundations of Shi'ism in Southeast Asia. It includes a comprehensive chapter by Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti that addresses the evolution of Shi'i devotional literature in light of the religious and political conditions of the Middle East and South East Asia. Part Two is dedicated to literary legacies. For instance, 'Alīb. Abī Ṭālib is known as the scribe of the Messenger of Islam in "the earliest surviving Javanese manuscript of Samud narrative dating from the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century" (53). As Ronit Ricci explains, 'Alī is portrayed in this manuscript as the faithful representative of Muhammad, who is fully knowledgeable. Ricci also shows that Javanese works display 'Alī as a great warrior who was able to defeat non-Muslims, including the Jewish people. Wendy Mukherjee introduces the theme of the piety (taqwa) and morality (akhlaq) of Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad, in Malay texts. A Malay folk prose narrative called Hikayat Ali Kawin or "The Story of 'Alī's Marriage" provides local young brides with ethical lessons. In an Acehnese text regarding Muhammad's admonitions, and thoroughly in contrast to Middle Eastern sources, the so-called sinless Fatima (the wife of 'Alī) is replaced with the one who is accused of a major sin, adultery. Muhammad is then shown instructing his daughter on how to obey her husband. For instance: "The woman who perishes in childbirth dies a martyr's death. There is no salvation for a woman who is unfaithful to her husband; hell is her portion" (75). This is despite the fact that upon translating and interpreting some Western and South Asian religious and mystical literature dealing with Muhammad and his household (ahl al-bayt), Malays added additional fictional/imaginary elements to the body of literature. They produced both concise and lengthy folk prose narratives and treatises focusing, for example, on 'Alī (Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law as well as the first imam of Shi'a) and Fatima, whose acts, according to Shi'ism, are errorless. Malay stories also suggest that one may easily manage one's life through learning about supernatural and magical qualities (khawass) found in the Malay version of holy figures' instructions (e.g. ahl al-bayt and Sufis). Following Edwin Wieringa, who had stated that "other texts in which 'Ali and Fātimah appear, seem to be of a more obscure nature, dealing with magic and eroticism/mysticism,"1 some chapters of this volume pay particular attention to such themes. [End Page 405] On this subject, Faried F. Saenong tries to demystify the role of 'Alid's family in Southeast Asian sexual arts. He outlines different stages of intercourse in Bugis manuscripts in which "'Alī and Fātima appear in a magic formula that is supposed to be uttered by the wife, in which 'Alī and Fātima are referred to as exemplary practitioners of foreplay" (107). Furthermore, there are several pre-twentieth-century Malay manuscripts with particular references to sensual pleasure (ladzat) and the sensation of orgasm (panas) discussed by Teren Sevea. Part Three revolves around modern Southeast Asia. For example, the chapter by R. Michael Feener argues the development and reception of an old [religious] feast...

A Stage for the Revolution: Muharram and the Paradigm of Karbala in the context of Khomeini's Struggle with the Shah

29 Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies Vol. XL, No.2, WINTER 2017 A Stage for the Revolution: Muharram and the Paradigm of Karbala in the context of Khomeini’s Struggle with the Shah Javier Gil Guerrero* Introduction An important part of Iran’s Islamic revolution was the role that religious rituals and Persian folklore played in the social upheaval. Khomeini successfully conjured the spirits of the past in order to bring change to the present. This paper describes how Khomeini made use of (and reinterpreted) the slaughter at Karbala (680) in order to mobilize the population. Throughout this process Khomeini not only helped to revive old traditions, but he also reactivated old concepts like “martyrdom” while instilling new meaning to them.1 The objective of this paper is to put the Khomeini’s use of Muharram (the commemoration of Hussein’s death at Karbala) in perspective and examine the nuances that he added to the story and the rituals that had emanated from it. ThroughtheuseofMuharram,Khomeini“presentedtherevolutionarymovement against the regime as a morality play […] where heroes and villains could be easily identified.”2 The study locates Khomeini’s refashioning of Karbala within the context of the Iranian revolution and the Pahlavi state, including the struggle for the ideological orientation of Shia Islam, the attempts to monopolize the Karbala commemorations by the Iranian authorities and the repeated use of those ceremonies for political motivations. The contention of this study is that through his approach to the story of *Javier Gil Guerrero is a professor of Middle Eastern History at the Universidad Francisco de Vitoria. He has recently published a book on the Iranian revolution, The Carter Administration & the Fall of Iran’s Pahlavi Dynasty (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016) as well as several papers on Iran and the Persian Gulf in the British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies and the Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos. He regularly writes on Islam in the Spanish press. 1 Elisabeth Jane Yarbakhsha, “Green martyrdom and the Iranian state,” Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, Volume 28, Issue 1, 2014. 2 Jahangir Amuzegar, The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution: The Pahlavi’s Triumph and Tragedy (New York: State University of New York Press, 1991), 31. 30 Hussein, Khomeini transformed the traditional image of the Imam from a passive and abused victim of injustice to a revolutionary martyr who fought to death against tyranny and oppression. Hussein became the prototype of a permanent revolutionary in a particular “Liberation Theology” of Islam.3 Khomeini’s innovative portrayal of Hussein reinterpreted one of the cultural pillars of Shia Islam in order to advance an “activist” approach to religion instead of the “quietist” one. The Karbala commemorations were thus dressed to fit a message of confrontation against the Shah in which the revolution was the only possible way for Shiites irrespective of its chances of success. The core of this paper is the description of Khomeini’s use of Muharram during his two clashes with the regime of the Shah in 1963 and 1978. The account is preceded by a brief overview of the historical events that inspired the mourning rituals of Muharram and their significance in Iranian culture and history. The aim is to contextualize the shifting interpretation of the ceremonies in the 1960s and 1970s through the particular beliefs and customs of Persian folklore and Shia Islam. Hussein, Karbala and Muharram The commemorations of Muharram revolve around the tragic end of Imam Hussein’s life in the year 680. Grandson of the Prophet Muhammad and son of the first Shia imam (and fourth Sunni Caliph), Ali. The slaughter of Hussein and the division concerning Prophet Muhammad’s rightful heirs constitutes the epicentre of the divisions between Shia and Sunni Muslims. The Shiites believe that the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law Ali had been designated leader of the Muslim community by the Prophet himself on his deathbed. It was a designation of divine inspiration, not a personal choice:Ali had been named heir to Muhammad’s leadership by God. The Sunnis, on the other hand, ignoredAli’s claim (accusing him of falsifying the story) and proceeded to accept the ruling of the elders of Medina...

To Karbala: Surveying Religious Shi'a from Iran and Iraq

This paper exploits the opportunity afforded by Shiite religious pilgrimage sites in southern Iraq (in Karbala and Najaf) to survey over 3000 observant Shiites both from Iran and from Iraq, and to inquire about their attitudes towards their respective governments, the West and the US, as well as their opinions on sectarian conflicts raging across the Middle East in Syria and Iraq, including the rise of ISIS and Iran’s nuclear program. The pilgrimage, which attracts several million people every year, is a unique opportunity to survey a very influential and largely understudied subsample of the Middle East at a time of intense conflict in the region, that being the religious Shiite Iranians and Iraqis that arguably form the backbone of support for their respective governments. Despite its undoubtedly massive and public nature, this religious event is largely unknown to the western world, as are the views of the observant Shiite Muslims who attend it. On a substantive level, this project aims to fill the existing gap by accessing the opinions of Iranian and Iraqi Shiites on a range of salient political issues at a pivotal time, when the US is fighting ISIS in Iraq and Syria; has negotiated an agreement with Iran on its nuclear program; and is confronted with intense and violent intra-sectarian conflict in places like Syria, Yemen and Bahrain. On a methodological level, it allows for innovative survey sampling techniques, as well as for survey experiments, (including endorsement and conjoint experiments among others) intended to elicit truthful responses to highly sensitive political questions.