Shape Of Law Research Articles

A More General Capillary Adhesion Model Including Shape Index: Single-Asperity and Multi-Asperity Cases

The capillary interaction between a sphere and a flat substrate has been widely investigated. Considering the complex shape of single asperities in real configurations, a more general model of capillary adhesion force including a power law shape index of asperities is developed. For the interaction between a single asperity with any axisymmetric power law shape profile and a flat substrate, the deformation originating from the adhesive force and the contact force is included in the model. Combining the single asperity capillary adhesion model and a statistical description of rough surfaces, the capillary adhesion between two rough surfaces is also studied. The simulation results show that the adhesive force between a single asperity and a flat surface increases gradually with increasing shape index at the same humidity level. For typical microelectromechanical systems surfaces, the adhesive force between rough surfaces also increases with the increased shape index of multi-asperities. Specifically, when the shape index varies from 1.8 to 2.4 at high humidity, the adhesive force between a single asperity and a plane may change remarkably, and the adhesion energy between rough surfaces may increase by several orders of magnitude at low humidity. These results show the necessity of including a shape index for modeling the capillary adhesion between single asperities, and a more detailed description of rough surfaces is also helpful to better quantify the capillary adhesion between rough surfaces.

Hard X-ray emission of Sco X-1

We study hard X-ray emission of the brightest accreting neutron star Sco X-1 with INTEGRAL observatory. Up to now INTEGRAL have collected ~4 Msec of deadtime corrected exposure on this source. We show that hard X-ray tail in time average spectrum of Sco X-1 has a power law shape without cutoff up to energies ~200-300 keV. An absence of the high energy cutoff does not agree with the predictions of a model, in which the tail is formed as a result of Comptonization of soft seed photons on bulk motion of matter near the compact object. The amplitude of the tail varies with time with factor more than ten with the faintest tail at the top of the so-called flaring branch of its color-color diagram. We show that the minimal amplitude of the power law tail is recorded when the component, corresponding to the innermost part of optically thick accretion disk, disappears from the emission spectrum. Therefore we show that the presence of the hard X-ray tail may be related with the existence of the inner part of the optically thick disk. We estimate cooling time for these energetic electrons and show that they can not be thermal. We propose that the hard X-ray tail emission originates as a Compton upscattering of soft seed photons on electrons, which might have initial non-thermal distribution.

Microindentation Test Modelling in the Silicon Nitride Ceramics by Application of the Cohesive Zone Approach

Silicon nitride based ceramics have received considerable attention during the last decades due to their very good room and high-temperature properties. Ceramics such as silicon nitride (Si3N4) are acknowledged as first choice for modern bearing applications. The influence of grain bridging on the strength and toughness was found. The prediction of crack propagation through interface elements based on the fracture mechanics approach and cohesive zone model is investigated from amount damage models. Using cohesive models the behaviour of materials is realized by two types of elements. The former is the element for classical continuum and the latter is the connecting cohesive element. Within the standard finite element package Abaqus the new finite element has been developed; it is written via the UEL procedure. The shape of the traction separation law for experimental materials is estimated from macroscopic tests, J–R curve is predicted and stability of the bridging law is tested. The shape of the bridging law is verified using the microindentation test, where the maximum crack length not exceeded 150 μm. The scope of the bridging effect is verified using the standard XFEM elements implemented in Abaqus.

The Future of Polyamorous Marriage: Lessons from the Marriage Equality Struggle

Amidst the recent legal victories and growing public support for same- sex marriage, numerous polyamorous individuals have expressed interest in pursuing legal recognition for marriages between more than two consenting adults. This Article explores the possibilities that exist for such a poly- amorous marriage equality campaign, in light of the theoretical literature on law and social movements, as well as our own original and secondary research on polyamorous and LGBT communities. Among other issues, we examine the prospect of prioritizing the marriage struggle over other forms of nonmarital relationship recognition; pragmatic regulative challenges, like taxation, healthcare, and immigration; and how law and culture shape these struggles and their ability to produce social change.We argue that legal mobilization for same-sex marriage has produced conflicting pressures for contemporary polyamorous activism. On one hand, same-sex marriage litigation has provided several doctrinal footholds for expanding marriage to polyamorous relationships. On the other hand, same- sex marriage litigation has simultaneously reinforced cultural stigmas against polyamorous relationships—stigmas that constrain the practical utility of those legal tools (especially as means for implementing broader social change beyond the letter of the law). By accounting for these conflict- ing legal and cultural pressures, this Article provides a comprehensive roadmap of the issues, strategies, and challenges likely to emerge along the path toward polyamorous marriages.

Quality of government and innovative performance in the regions of Europe

This article aims to shed light on how institutions shape innovative capacity, by focusing on how regional government quality affects innovative performance in the regions of Europe. By exploiting new data on quality of government, we assess how government quality and its components (control of corruption, rule of law, government effectiveness and government accountability) shape patenting across the regions of the European Union (EU). The results of the analysis—which are robust to controlling for the endogeneity of institutions—provide strong evidence of a link between the quality of government and the capacity of regions to innovate. In particular, ineffective and corrupt governments represent a fundamental barrier for the innovative capacity of the periphery of the EU, strongly undermining any potential effect of any other measures aimed at promoting greater innovation. The results have important implications for the definition of innovation strategies in EU regions.

Optimal activity, avalanches and criticality in a model of the Primary Visual Area

and the parameters of the model have been chosen from experimental works [8-10]. We studied many values of EPSP and refractory period parameters, yielding regimes either with or without superposition of avalanches. We analyze each layer separately as well as the whole network statistics. The active cluster size distribution agrees with a cutoff power law fit. The cutoff of these power laws scales with the layers’ linear size, L. Nevertheless, contrary to our expectations, the sizes of the avalanches are distributed in a bi-modal fashion. The active cluster size power law distributions and the longest lasting activity are found for EPSP = 1.21, which is the average experimental value for V1 pyramidal neurons [11]. For other values of EPSP, both the activity vanishes quickly and the cluster size distributions lose their cutoff power law shape. Surprisingly, only the cluster size, instead of the avalanches’ sizes and lifetimes distributions, displayed power law shape. We are currently determining the behavior of an order parameter to solidify our findings.

Transnational Evaluation of a Constitution Who, When and How

Not only most types of states and governments affected by transnational customs and force of international rules but also constitutions, as a base of rule of law shaping independence, however, depends on provisions arising from the horizontal dimension of transnational concepts. At all, there is a need for a method of evaluation of constitutions by transnational order and principles, which can theoretically configure a framework of a constitution. From beginning to end how a constitution ought to make, write and approve and change (not causing revolution), what ought to be in or out of a constitution, how should an effective fundamental right draft in constitution and etc? Recent constitution writing after revolutions took place by revolutionary people after falling down (not planned before) of another constitution (which somehow suit) in a rotary attitude and as a consequence, this kind of constitution is violating in nature, unstable and sentimentally, may cause changes in close future. This paper tries to develop transnational constitutional standards, which may enable evaluation of a constitution, with focuses on the preliminary standards of writing constitution, who, when and how may draft and approve a constitution with a look to recent revolutions; going to find fair answers to who entitle to draft? When is the proper time to change and revise? Finally, how these answers seem proper in transnational?

Web-based discovery and integration of archaeological historic properties inventory data: The Digital Index of North American Archaeology (DINAA)

Integrating data from different sources represents a tremendous research opportunity across the humanities, social, and natural sciences. However, repurposing data for uses not imagined or anticipated by their creators involves conceptual, methodological, and theoretical challenges. These are acute in archaeology, a discipline that straddles the humanities and sciences. Heritage protection laws shape archaeological practice and generate large bodies of data, largely untapped for research or other purposes. The Digital Index of North American Archaeology (DINAA) project adapts heritage management data sets for broader open and public uses. DINAA’s initial goal is to integrate government-curated public data from off-line and online digital repositories, from up to twenty US states, and which qualitatively and quantitatively describe over 500,000 archaeological sites in eastern North America. DINAA hopes to promote extension and reuse by government personnel, as well as by domestic and international researchers interested in the cultures, histories, artifacts, and behaviors described within these public data sets. DINAA innovatively applies methodologies and workflows typical of many ‘open science’ and digital humanities programs to these data sets. The distributed nature of data production, coupled with protections for sensitive data, add layers of complexity. Ethically negotiating these issues can wider the collaboration between stakeholder communities, and offer an unprecedented new view on human use of the North American landscape across vast regions and time scales.

Effective absorbing column density in the gamma-ray burst afterglow X-ray spectra

We investigate the scaling relation between the observed amount of absorption in the X-ray spectra of Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) afterglows and the absorber redshift. Through dedicated numerical simulations of an ideal instrument, we establish that this dependence has a power law shape with index 2.4. However, for real instruments, this value depends on their low energy cut-off, spectral resolution and on the detector spectral response in general. We thus provide appropriate scaling laws for specific instruments. Finally, we discuss the possibility to measure the absorber redshift from X-ray data alone. We find that 10^5-10^6 counts in the 0.3-10 keV band are needed to constrain the redshift with 10% accuracy. As a test case we discuss the XMM-Newton observation of GRB 090618 at z=0.54. We are able to recover the correct redshift of this burst with the expected accuracy.

응집 요소를 사용한 균열 진전 유한요소 해석에서 응집 법칙의 영향에 대한 연구

In this paper, the effect of cohesive laws on the finite element analysis of crack propagation using cohesive elements is investigated through three-point bending and double cantilever beam problems. The cohesive elements are implemented into ABAQUS/Standard user subroutines(UEL), and the shape of cohesive law is varied by changing parameters in polynomial functions of cohesive traction-separation relations. In particular, crack propagation behaviors are studied by comparing load-displacement curves of the analysis models which have different shapes of cohesive laws with the same values of fracture energy and cohesive strength. Furthermore, the influence of the element size on crack propagation is discussed in this study.

Properties of Magnetic Field Fluctuations in the Earth’s Magnetotail and Implications for the General Problem of Structure Formation in Hot Plasmas

In this review we discuss the formation of plasma structures in hot plasmas with large β. We use spacecraft observations of magnetic field fluctuations in the Earth magnetotail to reveal the main multiscale plasma properties. Fourier spectra of magnetic field fluctuations observed by various spacecraft in the different domains of the magnetotail at quiet or moderately disturbed times demonstrated a number of practically universal features: (1) the presence of two kinks at low (∼5×10−2 Hz) and high (∼5×10−1 Hz) frequencies, (2) in the frequency interval between the kinks the power law shape with an index ∼2.5, and (3) the significant intensification of fluctuations with the increase of plasma flow velocities. To describe these spectra we consider properties of a principal structure supporting the equilibrium of a hot plasma configuration—the magnetotail current sheet. The observed spatial scales of current sheets are often very small and almost reach the ion Larmor radius. Convection of such mesoscale plasma structures by plasma flows can be responsible for the formation of a certain part of the spectrum of magnetic field fluctuations. Lower- and higher- frequency domains in Fourier spectra can be generated respectively by large-scale MHD oscillations of current sheets and by kinetic small-scale instabilities excited by strong local magnetic field gradients existing in active current sheets.

Long-term variability of AGN at hard X-rays

Variability at all observed wavelengths is a distinctive property of AGN. Hard X-rays provide us with a view of the innermost regions of AGN, mostly unbiased by absorption along the line of sight. Swift/BAT offers the unique opportunity to follow, on time scales of days to years and with a regular sampling, the 14-195 keV emission of the largest AGN sample available up to date for this kind of investigation. We study the amplitude of the variations, and their dependence on sub-class and on energy, for a sample of 110 radio quiet and radio loud AGN selected from the BAT 58-month survey. About 80% of the AGN in the sample are found to exhibit significant variability on months to years time scales, radio loud sources being the most variable. The amplitude of the variations and their energy dependence are incompatible with variability being driven at hard X-rays by changes of the absorption column density. In general, the variations in the 14-24 and 35-100 keV bands are well correlated, suggesting a common origin of the variability across the BAT energy band. However, radio quiet AGN display on average 10% larger variations at 14-24 keV than at 35-100 keV and a softer-when-brighter behavior for most of the Seyfert galaxies with detectable spectral variability on month time scale. In addition, sources with harder spectra are found to be more variable than softer ones. These properties are generally consistent with a variable power law continuum, in flux and shape, pivoting at energies >~ 50 keV, to which a constant reflection component is superposed. When the same time scales are considered, the timing properties of AGN at hard X-rays are comparable to those at lower energies, with at least some of the differences possibly ascribable to components contributing differently in the two energy domains (e.g., reflection, absorption).

THE PdBI ARCSECOND WHIRLPOOL SURVEY (PAWS): ENVIRONMENTAL DEPENDENCE OF GIANT MOLECULAR CLOUD PROPERTIES IN M51

Using data from the PdBI Arcsecond Whirlpool Survey (PAWS), we have generated the largest extragalactic Giant Molecular Cloud (GMC) catalog to date, containing 1,507 individual objects. GMCs in the inner M51 disk account for only 54% of the total 12CO(1-0) luminosity of the survey, but on average they exhibit physical properties similar to Galactic GMCs. We do not find a strong correlation between the GMC size and velocity dispersion, and a simple virial analysis suggests that 30% of GMCs in M51 are unbound. We have analyzed the GMC properties within seven dynamically-motivated galactic environments, finding that GMCs in the spiral arms and in the central region are brighter and have higher velocity dispersions than inter-arm clouds. Globally, the GMC mass distribution does not follow a simple power law shape. Instead, we find that the shape of the mass distribution varies with galactic environment: the distribution is steeper in inter-arm region than in the spiral arms, and exhibits a sharp truncation at high masses for the nuclear bar region. We propose that the observed environmental variations in the GMC properties and mass distributions are a consequence of the combined action of large-scale dynamical processes and feedback from high mass star formation. We describe some challenges of using existing GMC identification techniques for decomposing the 12CO(1-0) emission in molecule-rich environments, such as M51's inner disk.

The Shape of Property

The Shape of Property

An International Lawyer in Democracy and Dictatorship - Re-Introducing Herbert Kraus

Herbert Kraus (1884–1965) is among the forgotten international lawyers of the 20th century. Kraus took part in a number of developments of great importance for the shaping of modern international law: he participated in the drafting process of the Versailles Peace Treaty and the Treaty on the European Coal and Steel Community and acted as defence counsel at Nuremberg. The founding director of the Institute for International Law at the University of Göttingen was forced to retire between 1937 and 1945 due to his criticism of National Socialism. The post-war perception of his work was coined by his forced retirement. However, his work between 1933 and 1937 sheds light on the dilemma of choosing between opposition and adjustment that Kraus was faced with during that period. This article re-introduces Kraus – a complex German character of international law – and the main features of his work.

The Shape of Chinese Law

Following the Simmelian tradition of social geometry, this essay proposes an analytical framework for understanding the legal system's social forms. It analyzes the basic social forms of the contemporary Chinese legal system in terms of its social structure, operational mode, ideological conflict, and cultural essence. This analytical framework fully recognizes the contradictions and conflicts inherent to the legal system, and it adopts a perspective of social interaction rather than social integration to examine its structure and change. The essay is both an empirical analysis of the social forms of Chinese law and an effort of theoretical innovation for the sociology of law.

William Blackstone a 'Prophet' of the English Law or an Eccentric Personality? How Did the Career of William Blackstone Influence the English Law?

This article examines the career of William Blackstone as it had a major influence on the shape of English law and its evolution as well as on the question of English legal reform in the late eighteenth century. The article aims at clearly answering all the major questions such as what was the underlying philosophy of Blackstone regarding the law, why did his lectures not continue after his death, and whether his Commentaries were good.

Investigations on the effect of shape of traction separation law on the results of cohesive zone model

Investigations on the effect of shape of traction separation law on the results of cohesive zone model

Stepping on Congress

AbstractLegislative enactment is only one step in the life of a law. How a law shapes public life after enactment is frequently the result of whether the judiciary interprets the provisions contained in a law and how courts reconcile provisions within and across laws. But the factors that determine whether the judiciary ends up playing such a role are not well understood. We investigate why the courts, through statutory interpretation, address some major laws but not others and why some laws are addressed soon after enactment, while others are on the books for years before they reach the judicial branch. Our evidence shows that conditions at the time of enactment, plus features of the law, play a major role in determining whether, and when, a law reaches the courts. More specifically, both divided government and disagreement between the two chambers increase the likelihood that the courts will address significant laws.

The Global Commission on HIV and the Law: recommendations for legal reform to promote sexual and reproductive health and rights

The Global Commission on HIV and the Law was established in 2010 to identify and analyse the complex framework of international, national, religious and customary law shaping national responses to HIV and the well-being of people living with HIV and key populations. Two years of deliberation, based on an exhaustive review of international public health and human rights scholarship, as well as almost 700 testimonials from individuals and organizations in more than 130 countries, informed the Commission’s recommendations on reform to laws and practices that criminalize those living with and vulnerable to HIV, sustain or mitigate violence and discrimination lived by women, facilitate or impede access to HIV-related treatment, and/or pertain to children and young people in the context of HIV. This paper presents the Commission’s findings and recommendations as they relate to sexual and reproductive health and rights, and examines how the Commission’s work intersects with strategic litigation on forced sterilization of women living with HIV, legal reform on the status of transgender individuals, initiatives to improve police treatment of female sex workers, and equal property rights for women living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America.