Tutoring Research Articles

Parent Time Input in Teenager Education Matters More Than Shadow Education

In recent years, shadow education—paid private supplementary tutoring providing additional educational assistance for students who are preparing for a variety of examinations—has become one of the fastest growing industries in a number of countries around the world, causing concern among governments and education policymakers, who believe that shadow education exacerbates the financial burden on poor families and exacerbates education inequality (Yu & Zhang, 2022).

Family Time and Money Inputs in Education and Teenager Development: Interpretation of Social Capital, Cultural Capital, and Shadow Education

This paper utilizes data from the China Education Panel Survey 2013-2015 to examine the effects of family time and money inputs in education on adolescent academic performance from the perspectives of home social capital, cultural capital, and shadow education. Home time input in education is more vital to teenager academic progress than money input. Domestic social capital and cultural capital as well as weekend shadow education positively impact child academic results. Home-based parental participation as a key component of domestic social capital has the most significant influence on teenager academic improvement, while weekend supplementary tutoring generates the weakest effect; workday extracurricular tutoring even negatively affects student academic achievement. School-based parental involvement differs among families of different classes, with a significant negative effect on academic results of teenagers from disadvantaged backgrounds. Due to the absence of heterogeneity effects of home time input in education on academic progress of students from various social backgrounds, parental time investment should be taken as the most effective means to improve academic performance of adolescents from underprivileged classes.

A phenomenographic study exploring the conceptions of stakeholders on their teaching and learning roles in nursing education

BackgroundNursing education involves a number of stakeholders in the teaching and learning process, and these are student nurses, lecturers, clinical instructors and nurses. The role that each of these parties play in the teaching and learning process is dependent on each other and is key to the development of competence among student nurses. However, there is scanty literature on the discourse of how these stakeholders conceptualise their roles to maximise student learning. The objective of this study was to explore the conceptions of stakeholders on their teaching and learning roles in nursing education.MethodsThirty-eight semi-structured interviews and three focus group discussions were conducted with nursing students, lecturers, clinical educators at a Namibian nursing college and nurses at teaching hospitals. Phenomenographic data analysis approach was applied.ResultsFour conceptions were constructed that described the level of involvement of the different parties in teaching and learning. These were initiating, supporting, becoming part of and owning the teaching and learning role. Three dimensions of variation marked the differences among the conceptions: responsibility and accountability, priorities and level of collaboration.ConclusionsThe parties involved in the teaching and learning in nursing education have qualitatively different understating of their roles and those of others. There is a pattern transcending from being at the periphery of teaching and learning to taking ownership of teaching and learning. And a movement from limited responsibility and collaboration to that of being responsible, accountable and high level of collaboration in the teaching and learning of nursing students. The conceptions in this study add more ways of enhancing collaboration between theoretical and clinical sites in nursing education, by ensuring that those involved are aware of their role and that of others and work collaboratively at the micro-level.

Systematic Review of Intelligent Tutoring Systems for Hard Skills Training in Virtual Reality Environments

Advances in immersive virtual reality (I-VR) technology have allowed for the development of I-VR learning environments (I-VRLEs) with increasing fidelity. When coupled with a sufficiently advanced computer tutor agent, such environments can facilitate asynchronous and self-regulated approaches to learning procedural skills in industrial settings. In this study, we performed a systematic review of published solutions involving the use of an intelligent tutoring system (ITS) to support hard skills training in an I-VRLE. For the seven solutions that qualified for the final analysis, we identified the learning context, the implemented system, as well as the perceptual, cognitive, and guidance features of the utilized tutoring agent. Generally, the I-VRLEs emulated realistic work environments or equipment. The solutions featured either embodied or embedded tutor agents. The agents’ perception was primarily based on either learner actions or learner progress. The agents’ guidance actions varied among the solutions, ranging from simple procedural hints to event interjections. Several agents were capable of answering certain specific questions. The cognition of the majority of agents represented variations on branched programming. A central limitation of all the solutions was that none of the reports detailed empirical studies conducted to compare the effectiveness of the developed training and tutoring solutions.

Can high school students teach their peers high quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)?

BackgroundIf adolescents can teach each other cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during school hours, this may be a cost-effective approach to CPR training. The aim of this study was to evaluate CPR quality among students trained by student instructors in CPR. Material and methodsThree high schools participated. Recruited student instructors (SIs) were given a two-day course by professional instructors. Theoretic knowledge was acquired through an e-learning program. The SIs then trained fellow students in a 90-minute practical CPR session during physical education classes. All participants performed a 4-minutes test of CPR performance. Data was collected using Little Anne QCPR manikins with QCPR classroom software (Laerdal Medical Inc, Norway). Statistical equivalence in CPR performance was assessed applying the two one-sided tests (TOST)-procedure. ResultsEight professional instructors trained 76 SIs who trained approximately 2650 students in CPR. The number of available tests for analysis of student performance was 982. The compression rates were within guideline recommendations for SIs (mean 110.6, SD 5.4) and students (mean 118.6, SD 8.6). The corresponding numbers for mean compression depth were 7.2 cm (SD 0.7) and 7 cm (SD 1.0). Students demonstrated greater variation in mouth-to-mouth (MTM) skills, with only 41% performing at least 15 successful ventilations during the test. Except for the total number of MTM ventilations (mean difference −5.6), CPR performance was deemed statistically equivalent between professional instructors, SIs and students. ConclusionsHigh school students can be trained as CPR instructors and teach fellow students CPR with good quality, with some variation in MTM-ventilation skills.

Research on the Evolving Mechanism of Shadow Education Based on the Law of Supply and Demand

Since the implementation of the ”double reduction policy”, the governance of off-campus training for students in the compulsory education stage has achieved remarkable results, but there are still many problems that cannot be effectively solved through special treatment. In this paper, we make a thorough analysis of the mechanism and process of the cause and evolution of shadow education by using the “Law of Supply and Demand” of economic management, and systematically clarify the key factors of supply and demand, which is the ”excessive demand” of parents and students for shadow education leads to the natural increase of the supply of shadow education institutions. We propose countermeasures focusing on the “demand-side management” to gradually reduce parents' demand for shadow education, to achieve a significant effect of inaction.

Multiple systems, multiple shadows: Diversity of supplementary tutoring received by private-school students in Dubai

Dubai has a unique overall structure of educational provision in which 89% of students attend private schools serving multiple nationalities. About half of these students receive supplementary tutoring, widely known in the literature as shadow education. Different school systems within Dubai have different shadows, shaped by various factors including curricular demands and the cultures of the learners. Some supplementary tutoring is received within the schools, and some externally. Patterns of school-provided tutoring are shaped by the operators’ business models. Some schools charge high fees and include supplementary tutoring within their packages, while others charge lower fees and require separate payments for tutoring. Further variations are caused by the policies of school principals, thus indeed forming multiple systems with multiple shadows. Particularly employing interview data from 18 schools, the paper draws on Dubai’s unique features to make conceptual contributions to wider literature about the ways in which curricula, cultures, business models, and school-level administrations shape shadow education provision.

Thirty-one and counting in the shadow: A teacher’s autoethnography

In this autoethnography, I explore the ways in which my dual teacher identity, that of a Greek state school EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teacher and that of an EFL private tutor in the ‘shadow education’ sector, has impacted and shaped various aspects of my life throughout my career. To that end, I rely on data from my daily planners I have been using for three decades, as well as my own memory and recollections of events occurring in parallel with, or as a result of, my professional life. Moreover, treating the SE literature as another data source, I position myself within this educational framework, reflect on my actions and choices over the years and draw conclusions indicating that my private tutoring has consistently provided me with illegal income almost twice as high as my official salary, and has, thus, been a priority over my official teaching obligations; has offered me professional satisfaction deriving from my students’ success; and has fatigued me physically, mentally and emotionally over time. Any ethical concerns have been pushed aside in view of the financial gain and the idiosyncratic nature of the Greek educational context where fee-charging tutoring appears culturally and socially accepted.Key words: autoethnography; Greek educational system; English as a foreign language education; shadow education; private tutoring; dual professional identityPart of the special issue Autoethnography in online doctoral education <https://doi.org/10.21428/8c225f6e.9415e58d>

“It’s not about the grades!” On Shadow Education in Denmark and How Parents Wish to Help Their Children Get Ahead

This article is about shadow education in Denmark. Based on qualitative interview data with families that purchase private supplementary tutoring, we analyse how this tutoring is related to child-rearing strategies in the families. With theoretical inspiration from Annette Lareau, we analyse the parents’ involvement in their children’s education as aspects of concerted cultivation. With the concept parentocracy, we shed light on the role parents’ wealth and wishes play in their children’s educational life. Finally, we look to contemporary educational youth research and the concept performance culture, to address implications such as stress, pressure, competitiveness, and a strong focus on grades among students in Danish upper secondary education.

Contribution of Shadow Education to the Performance of Students in Public Schools: The Case of Sri Lanka

This study individually estimates and analyzes the contribution of public schools and fee-paid private tutoring classes to academic performance of students in Sri Lanka. Econometric models and measures of descriptive statistics were estimated and instructional time was graphically compared to test whether the private tutoring classes significantly contribute to students’ academic performance. Econometric results with descriptive statistics strongly confirm the contribution of private tutoring education in the academic performance of the students in public schools. The study concludes that in Sri Lanka, private tuition classes have a significant positive contribution to the academic performance of students in public schools.

Institutional characteristics of education systems and inequalities: Introduction II

This is the second special issue of the International Journal of Comparative Sociology on the role of education systems as institutional settings on the reproduction of inequalities. The first was published in January 2021 and included papers that explored the role of shadow education and country characteristics during early childhood on educational inequalities. This special issue includes three papers that focus on stratification of the education system as a key driver of educational inequalities, cumulative (dis)advantage in the access to higher education, and student experiences in national educational systems. While we already elaborated on the research program, conceptual framework, and methodological challenges in the first introduction, we will deal with the current state-of-research in this second introduction.

A Mixed Methods Program Evaluation: Field Education Aimed at Improving Services for At-Risk Transition-Age Youth

ABSTRACT There has been an increasing focus on services aimed at engaging transition-age youth and emerging adults who are at risk of developing, or have developed, behavioral health disorders. However, a need remains for further development of specialized services for this population. This study evaluates a transition-age youth at risk (TYAR) training model within a Master of Social Work (MSW) program in New England. This convergent parallel mixed-method study collected student and field instructor data throughout each of the program’s three consecutive years (cohorts 1, 2, and 3). Students’ confidence related to working with TYAR clients increased over time within each cohort and throughout the program’s development. Opportunities and challenges for collaborative and iterative evaluations of MSW curriculums are discussed.

The Effect of Shadow Education on Hong Kong Student Wellbeing: Evidence From PISA 2018.

This study investigates the effect of shadow education on Hong Kong student wellbeing. The data were extracted from PISA 2018 (Programme For International Student Assessment 2018) of Hong Kong, and HLM analysis was conducted with student and school dimensions as the independent variables and student wellbeing as the dependent variable. The results in the student dimension showed that students attending shadow education had a significantly higher level of wellbeing than students who did not attend, and in the school dimension, that school competition climate had a significant impact on students' wellbeing; however, shadow education caused by schoolwork pressure and shadow education support appeared to have no significant impact on wellbeing. Furthermore, there was an interactive effect between competition climate and shadow education time which negatively affected wellbeing.

New Generation School initiative in Cambodia: Revisiting its effects on shadow education

This article aims to address a puzzle of whether New Generation School (NGS) initiative has any impacts on the deep-rooted, vexing culture of shadow education in Cambodia. The purpose of the NGS project is to build good human resources with STEM knowledge, ICT, and 21st-century skills, all of which are the necessary commodities in this current fluid society. At the same time, it wishes to remove the ingrained culture of shadow education which is oftentimes offered from public school teachers to their own students. Thus, to realize the above objective, this paper reviews a policy document “New Generation School Operational Policy Guidelines, 2019” published by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (MoEYS) and other reports by Kampuchea Action to Promote Education (KAPE) organization. The analysis indicates that NGS has not entirely omitted students’ participation but has eliminated teachers’ engagement in shadow education—revealing its success in building teacher professionalism and effective school leadership, all of which are the complementary strands of school-level accountability and have been the conundrums in this context for many years. This article offers a nuanced understanding of shadow education as it steers the attention of policymakers and researchers in Cambodia and other contexts to look at the factoid of alternative assessments and school-level accountability—having implications on teacher and school leader professionalism and corruption—as the ways to penetrate shadow education.

Responsibilised parents and shadow education: managing the precarious environment in China

Growing literatures highlight global shifts in education brought by spreading neoliberal values and marketisation. Parallel literatures address parenting styles. Parents, these literatures observe, are increasingly made responsible and/or voluntarily take responsibility for educational inputs alongside mainstream schooling. Much parental investment is in the so-called shadow education sector of private supplementary tutoring. Examining Chinese patterns, this paper notes longstanding high enrolment rates in both academic and non-academic supplementary education prior to government restrictions that brought a sharp marketplace jolt. The paper then employs parental interview data to show the rationales for such investment despite efforts by the Chinese authorities to retain schooling as a fully-sufficient form of education. The strengthened government policy altered the picture, but it seems likely that in the competitive society many parents will still secure supplementary support to manage what they feel to be a precarious environment.

A Review of Shadow Education

At the moment, shadow education is undergoing a rapid global expansion and has garnered widespread attention from a variety of sectors of society. After reviewing a substantial body of literature on after-school tutoring, this paper will attempt to summarize the findings of existing research on the evolution, current landscape, operating patterns, causes, impacts, and regulation of shadow education, with the goal of providing an overview of the subject for academia and sparking future research.

A Review of Shadow Education

At the moment, shadow education is undergoing a rapid global expansion and has garnered widespread attention from a variety of sectors of society. After reviewing a substantial body of literature on after-school tutoring, this paper will attempt to summarize the findings of existing research on the evolution, current landscape, operating patterns, causes, impacts, and regulation of shadow education, with the goal of providing an overview of the subject for academia and sparking future research.

Regional gaps in private tutoring time : Exploring the moderating effects of attitude toward public education

기존 연구는 지역에 따른 사교육과 공교육 각각의 격차를 밝혀왔으나 본 연구는 두 교육 체계의 불가분성을 고려하여 공교육에 대한 학생의 태도가 사교육 시간 활용의 지역 간 격차에 미치는 조절효과를 살펴보았다. 이때 학습 시간 활용의 측면에서 사교육 시간을 사교육 참여 시간과 학생의 능동적 시간 조절에 따른 숙제 시간으로 구분하여 그 격차를 분석하였다. 2010년 한국 아동·청소년 패널조사를 활용하였고, 학교 소재지는 서울, 수도권, 지방 광역시, 지방 시도 단위 넷으로 나누었다. 분석결과 서울에서 수도권, 지방으로 갈수록 사교육 참여 시간과 숙제 시간 모두 감소하여 사교육 환경 차이가 참여 시간의 차이뿐만 아니라 실제 숙제 시간의 차이로도 이어지는 상황임을 보여준다. 다음으로 학생의 공교육에 대한 태도를 학교 학습활동 충실도와 공교육을 통한 성취 열망으로 나누어 지역 격차의 조절효과를 살펴보았다. 분석결과 두 조절효과의 방향은 반대로 나타나, 학교 학습활동에 충실하고 공교육을 통한 성취열망은 낮은 학생들에게서 지역 간 사교육 참여 시간과 숙제 시간 차이가 가장 크게 나타났다. 즉 이러한 태도를 가진 서울 소재 학생은 학습을 돕는 보완적 역할로 사교육을 적극적으로 수행하는 반면, 비슷한 태도의 지방 소재 학생에게 사교육은 어쩔 수 없이 남는 공부시간을 투자하는 대상임을 암시한다. 이는 사교육-공교육 맥락에서 서울과 수도권 소재 학생들은 공교육에 대한 태도에 따라 사교육 활용을 원활하게 조절하는 반면 지방 소재 학생들은 그렇지 못한 상황임을 보여준다. 마지막으로 이러한 조절효과 면에서 지방은 광역시와 시도 간 상황에 차이가 없었다.

The Relations of Chinese Middle School Students’ Shadow Education Stress and Subjective Well-being: The Moderating Roles of Parent-Adolescent Communication

본 연구는 중국 중학생의 사교육스트레스와 주관적 안녕감의 관계를 살펴보고, 부모-자녀 의사소통방식이 그 관계를 어떻게 조절하는지를 검증하고자 수행되었다. 연구대상은 중국 저장성 온주시 중학교 재학생 293명이었으며, 사교육스트레스와 주관적 안녕감의 관계 및 부모-자녀간의 의사소통의 조절효과를 검증하기 위해 위계적 중다회귀분석을 실시하였다. 연구결과, 첫째, 사교육스트레스와 주관적 안녕감의 하위요인 효능안녕, 정서안녕, 관계안녕은 모두 통계적으로 유의한 부적 관련성을 나타내었다. 둘째, 부모-자녀 의사소통의 조절효과 분석에서 부모-자녀 간 개방형 의사소통이 높을수록 사교육스트레스와 주관적 안녕감의 부적관계가 약화되고, 부모-자녀 간 문제형 의사소통이 높을수록 사교육스트레스와 주관적 안녕감의 부적 관계가 강화되는 효과가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 이와 같은 결과를 바탕으로 중국 중학생의 사교육스트레스와 주관적 안녕감의 관계에서 부모-자녀 간 다양한 의사소통의 조절효과를 탐색하는 것이 어떠한 시사점을 주는지 제시하였고, 본 연구의 결과가 사교육이 확산되는 중국의 교육 현장과 중국 학부모들에게 전달할 수 있는 교육적 의의에 관하여 논의하였다.

Self-Efficacy of Chinese Language Teachers in a Private Tutoring Institution

This study aimed to examine Chinese language teachers’ self-efficacy and cultural dimension levels in a private tutoring educational institution in Bangkok, Thailand. A concurrent mixed-method design was applied in the study by quantitative results from 20 Chinese language teachers and qualitative interview findings of 14 participants (four teachers, six students, and four parents). The 9-point Likert scale instrument used in the study was based on Tschannen-Moran et al. (2001) teachers’ self-efficacy scale (TSES) and additional questions about cultural dimension derived from GLOBE research’s theory on culture and leadership. The study provided important insights into foreign language teachers’ self-efficacy when teaching in Thailand. More importantly, it addressed the issues faced by Chinese private tutoring institutions in Thailand and increased awareness for school leaders to improve their school’s management and interaction with parents. The questionnaire and interview findings indicated that Chinese language teachers in the selected institution had high self-efficacy and cultural dimension levels. However, interviews with the parents showed additional concerns for school leaders.