Shading Intensity Research Articles

遮荫对丛生福禄考茎部发育特性的影响

目的：探讨不同遮荫程度对丛生福禄考越夏生长的影响，为该植物夏季遮荫管理提供参考依据。方法：以丛生福禄考一年生扦插苗为试验材料，设全光照处理、50%遮荫、70%遮荫、90%遮荫4个水平，测定其茎长，茎数、分级数、分蘖数、蓬径指标，并分析不同遮荫程度丛生福禄考茎发育培性状变化的影响。结果：不同遮荫处理时，丛生福禄考的茎长、茎数、分蘖数、分级数、分蘖数均显著影响(P < 0.05，下同)；茎长、茎数、分级数随着遮荫强度的增加，生长量下降，但遮荫程度不同，茎部趋势并不一致且差异显著；茎长“先增后减”，茎数和分级数则持续降低。丛生福禄考的茎长增幅、蓬径增幅、茎数增幅两两之间存在极显著正相关(P < 0.01，下同)。分级数的增幅与分蘖数的增幅之间有显著正相关。结论：福禄考在越夏时期，不需要遮荫，是喜阳植物，对于弱光环境有一定的耐性。 Objective: The influence of shading measures on the cultivation characteristics of Phlox subulata was studied to provide references for summer shade management. Method: One-year-cuttings of Phlox subulata were used as material, and four treatments of full exposure, shading of 50%, 70% and 90% were set to measure the effects of stem length, number of stem, grading number, tiller number and canopy diameter. Result: Different shading treatments, Phlox subulata stem length, number of stem, number of grading, sprout number had significant effects (P < 0.05, the same be-low). Stem length, number of stem, number of grading decreased with the increase of the shading intensity. But among the different degree of shading, the growth trend of stem was not consistent and the difference was significant. The length of stem increased first and then decreased, and the number of stems and the number of grades decreased continuously. Among the increase of stem length, number of stem and canopy diameter were showing highly significant positive correlation (P < 0.01, the same below). There was a significant positive correlation between the increase of classification number and tiller number. Conclusion: In summer, Phlox subulata does not need any shade. It is heliophile, but it can endure a certain shade environment.

Effects of Post-Flowering Shading Intensities on Starch Components and Physicochemical Properties in Waxy and Non- waxy Wheats

Effects of Post-Flowering Shading Intensities on Starch Components and Physicochemical Properties in <i>Waxy</i> and Non- <i>waxy</i> Wheats

Morphogenesis, biomass and nutritive value of Panicum maximum under different shade levels and fertilizer nitrogen rates

AbstractPanicum maximum is important for cattle production in tropical regions, and it responds well to nitrogen (N) fertilization. Many cultivars have exhibited potential for use in silvopastoral systems, although there is limited information on how different levels of N can influence plant growth and nutritive value under shading. Morphogenetic and structural traits, biomass production and nutritive value of two P. maximum cultivars (Tanzânia and Massai) were investigated under three shading levels (0, 37 and 58%) and four N rates (0, 50, 100 and 150 mg N dm−3). Plants were grown in pots under shade. Leaf and stem elongation rate and leaf blade length increased with shading and in response to N. Tiller density was reduced with shading, but showed a linear increase fashion with N under full sun and moderate shading. Under intense shading, the tillering showed a quadratic response to N. Plant biomass production increased linearly with N under full sun and moderate shade, but it increased quadratically under intense shade. Crude protein (CP) content increased with shade and N and was greater for Tanzânia than Massai under shade. Contents of NDF and ADF were greater for Massai than Tanzânia. Acid detergent insoluble protein was reduced in Tanzânia under shade, but it increased for Massai. It is suggested that the positive shading effect on CP content may not result in increased nutritional value. Although N fertilization was important for increasing biomass production under full sun and moderate shade, it should be avoided under intense shading.

Effects of shade, altitude and management on multiple ecosystem services in coffee agroecosystems

Agroforestry systems provide diverse ecosystem services that contribute to farmer livelihoods and the conservation of natural resources. Despite these known benefits, there is still limited understanding on how shade trees affect the provision of multiple ecosystem services at the same time and the potential trade-offs or synergies among them. To fill this knowledge gap, we quantified four major ecosystem services (regulation of pests and diseases; provisioning of agroforestry products; maintenance of soil fertility; and carbon sequestration) in 69 coffee agroecosystems belonging to smallholder farmers under a range of altitudes (as representative of environmental conditions) and management conditions, in the region of Turrialba, Costa Rica. We first analyzed the individual effects of altitude, types of shade and management intensity and their interactions on the provision of ecosystem services. In order to identify potential trade-offs and synergies, we then analyzed bivariate relationships between different ecosystem services, and between individual ecosystem services and plant biodiversity. We also explored which types of shade provided better levels of ecosystem services. The effectiveness of different types of shade in providing ecosystem services depended on their interactions with altitude and coffee management, with different ecosystem services responding differently to these factors. No trade-offs were found among the different ecosystem services studied or between ecosystem services and biodiversity, suggesting that it is possible to increase the provision of multiple ecosystem services at the same time. Overall, both low and highly diversified coffee agroforestry systems had better ability to provide ecosystem services than coffee monocultures in full sun. Based on our findings, we suggest that coffee agroforestry systems should be designed with diversified, productive shade canopies and managed with a medium intensity of cropping practices, with the aim of ensuring the continued provision of multiple ecosystem services.

Managing team coordination incentives: the effect of payoff differentials

Purpose The current paper aims to present a formal model illustrating how payoff imbalances among the members of a team of decision makers (DMs) who must undertake a project condition the final outcome obtained. This result builds on the fact that payoffs imbalances would lead to different performance levels among the employees and managers who compose a team. The analysis is applied to a strategic environment, where a project requiring coordination among the DMs within the team must be developed. Design/methodology/approach The intuition behind the strategic framework on which the results are based is twofold. The authors build on the literature on social comparisons and assume that employees and managers acquire information on the payoffs received by other members of the team while being affected by the resulting comparisons, and they follow the economic literature on firm boundaries determined via incomplete contracts. In this case, employees and managers may underperform if they feel aggrieved by the outcome of the contract giving place to deadweight losses when developing the project. Findings The authors illustrate how a team-based performance reward structure may lead to a coordinated equilibrium even when team managers and employees receive different payoffs and exhibit shading incentives based on the payoff differentials between them. The authors will also illustrate how identical shading intensities by both groups of DMs imply that shading by the managers imposes a lower cost on the profit structure of the firm because it leads to a lower decrease in the cooperation incentives of the other members of the team. Finally, the authors show how differences in shading intensity between both types of DMs trigger a strategic defect mechanism within the team that determines the outcome of the project. Originality/value The novel environment of team cooperation and defection through shading introduced in this paper is designed to deal with the strategic decisions taken by DMs when undertaking a project within a group. In particular, the intensity of shading applied by the DMs will be endogenously determined by the relative payoffs received, which allows to account for different scenarios, where relative payoff differentials among DMs determine the outcome of the project.

Photosynthetic and physiological responses of foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) to low-light stress during grain-filling stage

Two foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) varieties were subjected to different shading intensity treatments during a grain-filling stage in a field experiment in order to clarify physiological mechanisms of low-light effects on the yield. Our results showed that the grain fresh mass per panicle, yield, photosynthetic pigment contents, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, effective quantum yield of PSII photochemistry, and electron transport rate decreased with the increase of shading intensity, whereas the intercellular CO2 concentration increased in both varieties. In addition, shading changed a double-peak diurnal variation of photosynthesis to a one-peak curve. In conclusion, the lower yield of foxtail millet was caused mainly by a reduction of grain mass assimilated, a decline in chlorophyll content, and the low photosynthetic rate due to low light during the grain-filling stage. Reduced light energy absorption and conversion, restricted electron transfer, and reduced stomatal conductance might cause the decrease in photosynthesis.

Growth performance of container-grown flowering dogwoods with different shade intensity and color©aaFirst Place – Graduate Student Research Paper Competition

Growth performance of container-grown flowering dogwoods with different shade intensity and color^©aaFirst Place – Graduate Student Research Paper Competition

Effect of different coloured shade nets on production and quality of cordyline

Cordyline terminalis is an important ornamental plant used for its beautiful foliage as cut green. This plant prefers shade for optimum growth. The effect of different coloured shade nets (red, green, black, and white with 50% shading intensity) along with control (without shade net) on production and quality of Cordyline terminalis was studied. The effect of spectral control of light on physiology and vegetative development was evaluated at different crop growth stages. The results showed that plants grown under shade nets produce good quality foliage and biomass irrespective of colour. The cut greens grown under red and white shade nets were exposed to higher PAR and transmittance than other colour nets and hence had better performance in terms of plant height, number of leaves, biomass, leaf area, photosynthetic rate, harvest index compared to control. Vase life of the foliage was higher under coloured shade nets when compared to open condition but significance difference was not found between different colours. White and red shade nets were found to be best for growing cordyline.

Interactive Effects of Trees and Nitrogen Supply on the Agronomic Characteristics of Warm‐Climate Grasses

Plant adaptations to cope with shade may vary according to the degree of shade tolerance and nutrient availability for each species. Studies of different understory species and their responses to combined shade and N effects are important to identify ways to optimize the quantity and quality of forage production. Our objective was to measure the dry matter yield (DMY) and nutritive value of six C4 grasses grown in two systems (full sunlight [FS] vs. a naturally shaded system composed of Eucalyptus dunnii Maiden trees) with two N levels (0 vs. 300 kg N ha−1yr−1) using the same target sward conditions (i.e., 50% depletion of the canopy height set by 95% light interception). Over 3 yr, the decreases in DMY under shade compared with FS ranged from 7% [Urochloa brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich) R.D. Webster] to 56% (Cynodon spp.) in fertilized treatments and between 11% (Paspalum notatum Fluegge) to 46% (Cynodon spp.) in treatments without N. The N effect was more important to the nutritive value of the forage than the shade effect, particularly for crude protein (CP, +46 g kg−1 with N supply), acid detergent fiber (ADF, –46 g kg−1) and leaf proportion (+11.2%). However, most of the species displayed higher leaf digestibility under shade due to decreases in ADF. Even with intense shading (light approximately 48% of unshaded), the digestible DMY and CP yield under trees were, on average, 70 and 71% of the 6.8 and 1.4 t ha−1 recorded in FS, respectively.Core Ideas The study identifies C4 species for the optimization of forage production under trees. Nitrogen and shade have combined effects on forage production and nutritive value. Limitations and benefits of integrated crop–livestock systems with trees. Shade effects on nutritive value occur at the leaf level and of the total biomass harvested.

Effects of Shade on Microclimate, Canopy Characteristics and Light Integrals in Dry Season Field-Grown Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Seedlings

Effect of shade regimes on gradients of microclimate, canopy extent (leaf area index: LAI) and light integrals in dry season field-grown cocoa (cacao) seedlings was investigated in a rainforest zone of Nigeria. The shade regimes tested were: unshaded/open-to-sun, dense shade and moderate shade. Shade intensity affected solar radiation transmission through cacao canopy, photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) and canopy light attenuation (extinction coefficient, k). Intensity of transmitted radiation below the canopy from incident radiation was highest for open-to-sun, followed by moderate and dense shade, respectively. The temporal trend of intercepted radiation showed that intercepted radiation increased from December to May, and, the values were highest for open-to-sun, followed by moderate and dense shade. The ratio of transmitted (Io) to incident (I) radiation (IO/I) was higher for open sun. Significant differences were found between open-to-sun (unshaded) and moderate and dense shade intensity for value of canopy extinction coefficient (k). The association of growing degree days (GDD), and, total leaf number (TLN) and leaf area index (LAI), were characterized by high coefficient of determination (R2) for the respective open, dense and moderate shade treatments. Inverse of the slope of the regression of relationship between estimated thermal time (°Cdays) and corresponding total leaf number (TLN) denotes leaf appearance rate (phyllochron, in °Cdays/leaf). Rate of leaf appearance was faster in open sun compared with to that in moderate or dense shade intensity. Characteristics of the cacao canopy development were measured by leaf area index (LAI), a parameter which affects the intercepted photosynthetic active radiation (PAR). Higher LAI was obtained in no shade (open sun) compared to that in moderate or dense shade treatments. Unshaded plants had a higher radiation use efficiency (RUE) and RUE values were significantly higher compared to the other two treatments. Low light intensity and LAI for under-storey cacao had negative implications for growth and biomass development. Air temperatures within the cacao field were highest for open sun cacao, followed by moderate and dense shade, respectively; the values increased from December to April, with peak values seen in April.

Regulation of Black Pepper Inflorescence Quantity by Shading at Different Growth Stages.

Black pepper is a perennial plant that can bloom throughout the year. It is generally expected that pepper inflorescence quantity could be minimized at the nonfull-bloom stage. The objective of this study was to find an appropriate shading measure that could inhibit blooming at other growing stages except the full-bloom stage and did not cause any reduction in pepper yield and quality. In this study, pepper trees were shaded up to 15%, 30%, 60% and 75%, respectively, and the inflorescence quantity, photosynthetic characteristics, pepper yield and quality traits were investigated at every growing stage. The results showed that the effect of shading on pepper yield decreased as time progressed. Shading treatment did not alter the composition of piperine and volatile oil, but reduced the moisture content. Based on the correlation between photosynthetic parameter and inflorescence number, the appropriate shading intensities for regulating inflorescence quantity at different phenological stages were determined. Moreover, it was found that the regulation of inflorescence quantity could be achieved by controlling leaf temperature during recovery to filling period. This research outcome also will give us some guidelines to develop other management strategies that control leaf temperature and regulate inflorescence quantity to consequently improve pepper yield.

Lights Off for Arbuscular Mycorrhiza: On Its Symbiotic Functioning under Light Deprivation.

Plants are often exposed to shade over different time scales and this may substantially affect not only their own growth, but also development and functioning of the energetically dependent organisms. Among those, the root symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and rhizobia represent particularly important cases—on the one hand, they consume a significant share of plant carbon (C) budget and, on the other, they generate a number of important nutritional feedbacks on their plant hosts, often resulting in a net positive effect on their host growth and/or fitness. Here we discuss our previous results comparing mycorrhizal performance under different intensities and durations of shade (Konvalinková et al., 2015) in a broader context of previously published literature. Additionally, we review publicly available knowledge on the root colonization and mycorrhizal growth responses in AM plants under light deprivation. Experimental evidence shows that sudden and intensive decrease of light availability to a mycorrhizal plant triggers rapid deactivation of phosphorus transfer from the AM fungus to the plant already within a few days, implying active and rapid response of the AM fungus to the energetic status of its plant host. When AM plants are exposed to intensive shading on longer time scales (weeks to months), positive mycorrhizal growth responses (MGR) are often decreasing and may eventually become negative. This is most likely due to the high C cost of the symbiosis relative to the C availability, and failure of plants to fully compensate for the fungal C demand under low light. Root colonization by AM fungi often declines under low light intensities, although the active role of plants in regulating the extent of root colonization has not yet been unequivocally demonstrated. Quantitative information on the rates and dynamics of C transfer from the plant to the fungus is mostly missing, as is the knowledge on the involved molecular mechanisms. Therefore, these subjects deserve particular attention in the future.

Shade Effect on Growth and Productivity of Tomato and Chili Pepper

Southern U.S. states such as Texas experience high temperatures and intense solar radiation during the summer production season. Use of shadecloth is common in Spain and other Mediterranean countries and is becoming popular with homeowners or small-acreage farmers in Texas. Little information is available on the applicability of using shadecloth on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and chili pepper (Capsicum annuum) in the warm climate of Texas. The effects of two shade nets differing in shading intensity on growth, chlorophyll fluorescence, and photosynthesis of ‘Celebrity’ tomato and ‘Sweet Banana’ chili pepper was investigated from May to Aug. 2014. Plants were grown in 50% shade, 70% shade, or full sun. Compared with the unshaded control, tomato grown in 50% shade had similar yield and shoot fresh and dry weight and less photochemical stress. The 50% shade reduced number and weight of unmarketable tomato fruit. Similar results were obtained with chili pepper except for lower numbers of marketable fruit. The 70% shade significantly reduced yield parameters of both tomato and chili pepper. Both 50% and 70% shadecloth reduced leaf temperatures of tomato and chili pepper with variable results in June and July. Growth index [(height + width 1 + width 2) ÷ 3] of tomato and chili pepper was the highest with 50% shade, the lowest with full sun, and intermediate with 70% shade. The maximum net photosynthetic rates (Pn) of tomato determined from a Pn to light response curve supported the results on growth and yield. However, the maximum Pn of chili pepper was higher in full sun treatment compared with 50% or 70% shade. The latter two were almost identical. This one growing season study indicated that shading at 50% benefits tomato and chili pepper production in west Texas by reducing heat stress; however, a shading percentage below 50% may be better.

Physiological, morphological, and anatomical changes in Rhododendron agastum in response to shading

To investigate how shading intensity influences azalea (Rhododendron agastum) seedlings, we examined changes in plant growth (both anatomical and physiological). For this, Rh. agastum plants were grown under different shading intensities: 0, 31.28, 52.07, and 86.35 %. The results showed that the height, leaf areas and chlorophyll content increased under shade, whereas ground diameter and root length decreased under shade, which caused an increase in the height/diameter ratio. We found that 31.28 % shading significantly enhanced the biomass accumulation, net photosynthetic rate and the light-saturation point. Shading also altered the anatomic structure of Rh. agastum leaves, including reductions in leaf thickness, stomatal density, stomatal indices, and the thickness of the palisade tissue and the number of cellular layers therein, increased in the lengths of the vertical and lateral axes, and the ratio of palisade tissue to spongy tissue was reduced, which were beneficial to transpiration and photosynthesis. Therefore, the anatomic structure and the photosynthesis characteristics of Rh. agastum were closely connected. On the basis of these results, it could be deduced that moderate shading induces a physiological adaptation mechanism, which markedly affects the form and photosynthesis thereof.

Effect of coloured shade nets on yield and quality of pomegranate (Punica granatum) cv. Mridula in semi-arid region of Punjab

The productivity of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) cv. Mridula was examined under shade nets of different colours (Red, Black and Green) with shade intensities (Red 50% PAR, Black 50% PAR, Green 35% PAR and 50% PAR) in Abohar, Punjab over two growing seasons. To overcome the evaporation losses, use of fogger and microsprinkler was done along with Kaolin 4% and Borax 0.4% to prevent sunburn and cracking problem. An insect net (50 mesh) was also used to prevent the damage from insects especially pomegranate fruit fly. The experimental results clearly showed that photoselective nets influenced photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) transmitted through the canopy which caused variation in average monthly temperature and humidity. The quality of the fruits was affected under the open field conditions as compared to other treatments. Maximum acidity (0.412%), Vitamin C (13.52 mg/100 g), total sugars (13%) and highest antioxidant activity (40.1%) were recorded under open field conditions. Whereas minimum acidity (0.206%), minimum vitamin C (5.80mg/100g), total sugars (6.8%), and total phenols (7.5%) were recorded in the fruits grown under black shade net (50%). On the other hand, the application of shade net had significant impact on the quantitative characteristics. Shading with the net (Red 50%) resulted in the significant increase in the length of the fruits (83.39 mm) along with higher fruit weight (310 g) and highest yield of 6.70 kg/plant as compared to the open field condition (3.14 kg/plant). The results, therefore, demonstrate the potency of photoselective netting (Red colour) for improving the agro-economic performance of horticultural crops especially inharsh climates and arid zones. Placing the red nets over mature plants at intermediate shade levels (35% PAR and 50% PAR) provides higher yield without any detrimental effects on fruit quality.

Validation of the mean radiant temperature simulated by the RayMan software in urban environments.

The RayMan software is worldwide applied in investigations on different issues in human-biometeorology. However, only the simulated mean radiant temperature (T mrt) has been validated so far in a few case studies. They are based on T mrt values, which were experimentally determined in urban environments by use of a globe thermometer or applying the six-directional method. This study analyses previous T mrt validations in a comparative manner. Their results are extended by a recent validation of T mrt in an urban micro-environment in Freiburg (southwest Germany), which can be regarded as relatively heterogeneous due to different shading intensities by tree crowns. In addition, a validation of the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) simulated by RayMan is conducted for the first time. The validations are based on experimentally determined T mrt and PET values, which were calculated from measured meteorological variables in the daytime of a clear-sky summer day. In total, the validation results show that RayMan is capable of simulating T mrt satisfactorily under relatively homogeneous site conditions. However, the inaccuracy of simulated T mrt is increasing with lower sun elevation and growing heterogeneity of the simulation site. As T mrt represents the meteorological variable that mostly governs PET in the daytime of clear-sky summer days, the accuracy of simulated T mrt is mainly responsible for the accuracy of simulated PET. The T mrt validations result in some recommendations, which concern an update of physical principles applied in the RayMan software to simulate the short- and long-wave radiant flux densities, especially from vertical building walls and tree crowns.

Upaya Perbaikan Pertumbuhan Bibit Merbau Darat (Intsia Palembanica) Dengan Naungan Dan Pemupukan

Mirabow (Intsia palembanica) is one of high quality tropical wood. The wood of mirabow is categorized in durable class I, II and strong class I, II. Mirabow has the straight wood fiber, can be used as plywood, panels, furniture, musical instrument and beautiful shiny wood surface. Among the factors that affect plant growth were shading intensity and nutrients. The purpose of the research were to figure out the effect of shading intensity and fertilization to the growth of mirabow. The Block Randomized Design (BRD) of 4 groups and 3 treatment was employed as research design. Group of the reseach was the provision of no shading (0%), shading intensity 55%, shading intensity 65%, and shading intensity 75%, meanwhile the dose of NPK fertilizer of 0 g/polybag, 2 g/polybag, and 4 g/polybag were employed as the treatments. The large of experimental unit were used 1 seedling. The variable that was observed were high accretion, diameter accretion, root length, number of leaves, crown root ratio, dry weight of crown, dry weight of root, total dry weight and quality index of seedling. Bartlett test was employed to figure out the homogenity of datas. Then, analysis of variance was used to the least significant difference. The entire data tested on 5% significant level. The results showed that 55% shading intensity, obviously increase the dry weight of crown, however the shading intensity more than 65% in fact, evidently decrease the dry weight crown and total dry weight of mirabow seedling. The dose of 4 g/polybag of NPK fertilizer, evidently the number of leaves, crown root ratio, dry weight of crown and total dry weight of mirabow seedling.Keywords : mirabow, seed fertilisation, shading intensity

Identifying transportation disadvantage: Mixed-methods analysis combining GIS mapping with qualitative data

Rural residents, including elderly, low-income or people with language or physical mobility challenges, may experience transportation disadvantage when land use patterns, built environment and transportation services fail to meet their mobility needs. A technique for identifying transportation-disadvantaged populations, intended for use by local practitioners and designed with their skills and professional routines in mind, was piloted in five rural counties in North Carolina. Maps showing areas of elevated theoretical risk of transportation disadvantage were constructed by overlaying layers of readily available, Census-based geospatial data, to generate composite maps where increasing intensity of shading denotes populations with multiple risk factors. The maps were used in key informant interviews with local transportation-relevant professionals to access their expert knowledge, and in focus groups with non-expert residents to probe their travel routines and need to access essential goods, services and activities. These multiple data sources supported an iterative process of initial mapping, stakeholder outreach, revised mapping, and continued discussion.Our findings both corroborated some a priori expectations, and yielded unexpected insights into which residents may experience transportation disadvantage and how they respond. The work demonstrates how local knowledge can be used to identify unique or non-spatial components of transportation disadvantage, and underscores the importance of locally specific knowledge to support planning efforts to identify and ultimately to address transportation disadvantage.

Cacao Cultivation under Diverse Shade Tree Cover Allows High Carbon Storage and Sequestration without Yield Losses.

One of the main drivers of tropical forest loss is their conversion to oil palm, soy or cacao plantations with low biodiversity and greatly reduced carbon storage. Southeast Asian cacao plantations are often established under shade tree cover, but are later converted to non-shaded monocultures to avoid resource competition. We compared three co-occurring cacao cultivation systems (3 replicate stands each) with different shade intensity (non-shaded monoculture, cacao with the legume Gliricidia sepium shade trees, and cacao with several shade tree species) in Sulawesi (Indonesia) with respect to above- and belowground biomass and productivity, and cacao bean yield. Total biomass C stocks (above- and belowground) increased fivefold from the monoculture to the multi-shade tree system (from 11 to 57 Mg ha-1), total net primary production rose twofold (from 9 to 18 Mg C ha-1 yr-1). This increase was associated with a 6fold increase in aboveground biomass, but only a 3.5fold increase in root biomass, indicating a clear shift in C allocation to aboveground tree organs with increasing shade for both cacao and shade trees. Despite a canopy cover increase from 50 to 93%, cacao bean yield remained invariant across the systems (variation: 1.1–1.2 Mg C ha-1 yr-1). The monocultures had a twice as rapid leaf turnover suggesting that shading reduces the exposure of cacao to atmospheric drought, probably resulting in greater leaf longevity. Thus, contrary to general belief, cacao bean yield does not necessarily decrease under shading which seems to reduce physical stress. If planned properly, cacao plantations under a shade tree cover allow combining high yield with benefits for carbon sequestration and storage, production system stability under stress, and higher levels of animal and plant diversity.

Assessing Potential Conservation and Restoration Areas of FreshwaterFish Fauna in the Indian River Basins.

Conservation efforts globally are skewed toward terrestrial ecosystems. To date, conservation of aquatic ecosystems, in particular fish fauna, is largely neglected. We provide a country-wide assessment of Indian river ecosystems in order to identify and prioritize areas for protection and restoration of freshwater fish fauna. Using various biodiversity and anthropogenic attributes, coupled with tools of ecological modeling, we delineated areas for fish fauna conservation and restoration in the 20 major river basins of India. To do this, we used prioritization analyses and reserve selection algorithms to derive conservation value index (CVI) and vulnerability index (VI) of the river basins. CVI was estimated using endemicity, rarity, conservation value, and taxonomic singularity, while VI was estimated using a disturbance index derived from percent geographic area of the basin under human settlements, human population density, predominant land use, and total number of exotic fish species in each basin. The two indices, CVI and VI, were converted into geo-referenced maps, and each map was super-imposed onto species richness and forest cover maps, respectively. After superimposition, areas with high CVI and low VI shade intensities were delineated for conservation, while areas with high CVI and high VI shade intensities were demarcated for restoration. In view of the importance of freshwater fish for human livelihoods and consumption, and ecosystems of India's rivers, we call for urgent attention to the conservation of their fish fauna along with restoration of their degraded habitats.