Dense Shade Research Articles

Preference for artificial range enrichment design features in free-range commercial laying hens

ABSTRACT 1. This study examined what elements of artificial enrichment structures attract hens in the outdoor range, and what behaviours hens perform around these structures. Three principles of cover design (height, orientation and visual density) were tested for laying hen preference in the outdoor range of a commercial egg farm using a 2 × 3 × 3 factorial design. The factors were height: 0.5 m or 1.5 m; orientation: vertical, horizontal or horizontal cover with one vertical side; and visual density: 0% (control), 50% or 90% UV blocking cloth. 2. A significant three-way interaction between all factors was found (P < 0.001). The most preferred visual density of these structures was the 90%, followed by 50% UV blocking cloth. Horizontal structures with one vertical side, of either height, were highly preferred. Short horizontal structures were preferred to tall ones, and tall vertical structures were slightly preferred over short ones. 3. The most common behaviours observed around the structures were interaction with the structure (pecks, scratches and vigilance directed at the structure; 32.7%), foraging (32.2%), locomotion (9.9%), and air foraging (pecks and snapping in the air; 9.0%). A three-way interaction between the design principles influenced the proportion of hens performing each of these behaviours (P < 0.001). Hens foraged more around structures with no shade cloth and interacted more with structures that had dense shade cloth. 4. These results highlighted the complexity of designing attractive outdoor environments for laying hens. By testing the combination of elements that hens prefer it is possible to understand how to design attractive outdoor ranges that attract hens and promote a diverse range of behaviours on commercial farms.

Micro-Climate Conditions, Weed Diversity, Flowering and Yield of Young Cacao Plants as Affected by Shade Regimes

Experiments were conducted in 2015/2018 in two cacao plots established in 2012 and 2013 in Akure, Nigeria to investigate micro-climate conditions, weed densities, flowering and yield of cacao as affected by shade regimes. Established cacao plots under three plantain (Musa spp) shade regimes consisting of No-shade, Moderate and Dense shade were used. Air and soil temperature, relative humidity and Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR), weed population and species diversity, cacao flowering and pod production were measured. From the results, air and soil temperature measurements under No-shade plots had a significantly higher mean values (32°C) and soil (28°C) compared with moderately shaded [air, 30°C and soil, 26.5°C] and densely shaded [air, 30°C and soil, 26°C] plots in2015 and 2016 measurements but under 2017 measurements, no significant difference in the soil temperature of the plots under dense shade, moderate and the no-shade which were ascribed to canopy close-up of the cacao that led to reduced transmitted light through the canopy to the understories species. The vigour of weeds under no-shade plots were significantly higher compared with dense and moderately shaded plots. In 2013 established cacao plot, flower production was higher significantly in no-shade compared with those in moderate and dense shaded cacao plots in 2015 and 2016 measurement. Pod production under No-shade were significantly higher compared with other treatments in 2016 and 2017. Cherelle wilt rate was higher in shaded plots compared with the no-shade plots. Pod yield parameters were significantly higher under No-shade plots compared with shaded treatments during the three years of data measurement. Air temperature between 30°C to 33.7°C during flowering and fruit/pod setting was found to have positive influence on bean yield in cacao. The study concluded that excessive shade decreases yield of cocoa, while increases in temperature and relative humidity boosts some physiological processes for pod production in Cocoa

Temporal dynamics and biocontrol potential of a hyperparasite on coffee leaf rust across a landscape in Arabica coffee’s native range

Agroforestry systems can provide habitats for a rich biodiversity including multitrophic interactions, which presents opportunities to develop natural pest control. Shade coffee systems in several coffee growing areas of the world host such unique habitats where pests and their natural enemies interact. One of the major global challenges for coffee production, coffee leaf rust caused by the fungal pathogen Hemileia vastatrix is attacked by the fungal hyperparasite, Lecanicillium lecanii. However, we lack insights in the dynamics and biocontrol potential of the hyperparasite on coffee leaf rust from landscapes in Arabica coffee’s native range. To understand the temporal dynamics across landscapes and environmental drivers of the rust and hyperparasite, and the potential for biocontrol of the rust by the hyperparasite, we studied the rust and hyperparasite during the dry and wet seasons for three consecutive years at 60 sites across a gradient of coffee management in southwestern Ethiopia. We found that coffee leaf rust was more severe during the dry season, whereas the hyperparasite was more severe during the wet season in two out of three years. The rust growth rate from the wet to the dry season transition was negatively related to the hyperparasite index during the wet season, implying a potential top-down control. Coffee leaf rust was generally more severe at lower altitudes in the dry season, whereas the hyperparasite was more severe at high altitude. The rust incidence increased with management intensity, while the hyperparasite was more common under less intensive management. This study could be interesting in that it represents a landscape where Arabica coffee originated and the rust and hyperparasite might have a long co-evolutionary history. Our findings highlight the potential of the hyperparasite to suppress the rust’s growth rate from the wet to dry season transition when the rust severity could otherwise be at its peak. We show that less intensively managed landscapes with dense shade levels are likely to increase hyperparasite abundance and result in an improved top-down control of the rust. However, more detailed knowledge is needed on the interaction of these species to assess its importance for reducing rust induced yield losses or the risk of rust outbreaks.

Impact of Climate Change on the Production of Coffea arabica at Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Adapting coffee production to climate change is a significant challenge requiring a detailed understanding of local climatic change patterns and the consequences, both real and perceived, for coffee production. To this end, we examined changes in precipitation at Mt. Kilimanjaro over the last two decades and conducted twelve focus group discussions to obtain farmers’ perceptions on climate change, the impact of extreme weather events on coffee production and the potential of shade trees as an adaptation strategy. Despite an increase in total annual precipitation, farmers are still confronted with droughts due to a shift in seasons. We found a delayed onset of the main rainy season and showed that a positive Indian Ocean Dipole contributes to the increase in precipitation during the short rainy season. Farmers clearly described the impacts of drought or excess rainfall on coffee production during flowering, maturation, and harvest. Thus, adaptation strategies need to be tailored such that specific coffee development stages are buffered against the effects of droughts, shorter wet seasons, and less frequent but heavier rainfall events. To develop the potential of shade trees as an effective adaptation strategy, optimum shade density, specific tree species, and management practices need to be identified.

The growth and yield of hybrid maize on shaded agroecosystem

The development of maize in shade areas is one of the efforts to increase the national maize production.The study objective was to determine the growth and yield adaptation of hybrid maize in shaded areas. The study was conducted in the sengon forest area of Kalices Village, Patehan District, Kendal Regency from March to September 2020. The study was designed using a randomized block design with split-split plots with treatments including: a) shade density (0%, 20% and 40%) as the main plot; b) cultivation technology (PTT and existing farmers) as sub-plots; and c) varieties (JH 37, Nasa 29 and Bisi 18) as sub-plots. Each treatment was replicated 3 times in order to obtain 18 treatment combinations and each replication was planted in a plot with a size of 350 m2. The parameters observed included the percentage of plants growing, plant height at harvest, age 50% male flowers, age 50% female flowers, cob height, cob length, cob weight, cob diameter, number of rows per cob, number of seeds per row, weight of dry seeds, seed moisture content, yield per plot and yield per hectare. The data were processed by analysis of variance and if there is a significant difference, it was further tested with DMRT at the 5% level. The results showed that the shading had a very significant effect on most of the yield components, namely cob length, number of seed rows per cob, wet and dry shell weight per 10 cobs, wet stubble weight per 10 plants, wet stubble weight, and dry shell weight. However, there is no significant effect on the growth components of growth power, cob circumference and cob position. The growth and yield adaptation of maize was better at 20% shade density compared to 40% shade density. On land with a shade density of 20%, the highest productivity was obtained in the Bisi 18 of 5.9 t/ha with a potential yield of 62.7%, followed by Nasa 29 of 5.8 t/ha with a potential yield of 58.41%, and JH 37 as much as 5.2 t/ha with a potential yield of 25%.

The Magnolia and the Beetle

The Magnolia and the Beetle Alexandra Tennant (bio) 1 I have a magnolia on my arm. It is tattooed in the place where I would anchor myself around the shoulders of a person, or embrace a cardboard box I had hitched up to just under my chin with my knee, or where the ground would meet my arm should I fold it up and lay down my head. I got it out of instinct. Or homesickness. If homesickness lived cutaneously. In such case, I’m waiting to uncover Lake Hartwell on my knee, and summertime weather reports from my sacrum, and the dogwood planted by the elementary school recess yard in memory of my dead friends on my belly. I’ll spend my whole lifetime paying tattoo artists to fill in the topography of my body, like a scratch ticket, flicking away dead skin cells to unveil slick mud and dark gravel, the pavement that broke my teeth, blackberry thorns, and the tannic pull of a crabapple. ________ If this were true, and I am just a conglomeration of stones and rotting bark, the magnolia’s birth on my arm was the most likely to come first. I had a magnolia that was mine, and it belongs to me now, but only in the chromatic layers of memory. I have attached to it the very first feeling of love, not affection or kinship but specific, adhesive love. I was six. I remember vaguely the corners of the house where the magnolia tree grew but only flaking ivory memories. I remember the foundation of the house, where the brick split from the dirt, and I remember the metal tracks of the sliding patio door. I remember the hydrangeas, with their leaves that smelled of smashed flower stems. I remember planting my dead hermit crab underneath a bush, shell and all. But the tree I know clearly. There is the vantage point from the back-seat of the car, pulling down the street where the magnolia stood, and pivoting around it to park in the driveway. It was a dark and green silo [End Page 118] with ivory blossoms larger than my child face, larger than my adult face. There was the running out of the car, unbuckling the glitter gellies from my feet so I could cling to the gray trunk and lay my body along the gray branches among the benign wolf spiders. And there was the way the ground held the August heat way past dusk, the way the wind leaves me in a single gust, and the way the bark sands my hands on the way down. 2 Grief spoils when you’re a child. Grief can ruin an adult, but it is an invasive, climbing ruin. In a child, it ferments and curdles. There is no place for grief to grow when you’re eleven years old and your best friend in the world is killed in plain daylight by a rogue Honda Accord. That pain is born to never age, and it rots. Sometimes I still prod it, the rot. I imagine it like a mold, perhaps something noble like botrytis, lining the other side of my ribcage, so when I breathe my lungs press it, pulling off spores with every exhale. The house where the magnolia lived, so did sometimes Kayla. Kayla was my age, older by seven weeks. Our fathers met as assistant general managers of the seventh Cracker Barrel to ever open in the country. There was a summer when her father was suing her mother for custody, and time moved like water, and at times it felt like she lived with us. This summer was at the house with the magnolia, before the world of adults made itself known. We spent our days in the front yard, the canopy of the tree shading us and books and dolls. It was the theater for our stories, the circuses we told as vinelike trapeze artists, the elaborate fairy tales we imitated and manipulated from our books and movies. Always, she was the princess, I was the prince, and it was her I first kissed in the dense shade of my first true love magnolia...

The Results of a Long-Term Monitoring and Experiment to Enrich the Gene Pool of Populations of the Bush Snail Bradybaena fruticum (Müll.) in Urbanized Territories on the Basis of Analysis of Phenetic Features

The results of a long-term monitoring of the dynamics of phenetic features in ten populations of the bush snail Bradybaena fruticum (Mull.) in the Moscow region and city parks of Moscow have revealed that the frequency of the allele of striped shells remained unchanged in large natural populations, while there was a shift in the frequencies of this allele in small urbanized isolates. Simultaneously, in a series of generations, a tendency for the frequency of yellow shells to increase has been revealed, which can be accounted for by the ongoing lightening of the habitats (decreasing the shade density) and confirms the adaptability of the feature of shell color. The long-term experiment to maintain the viability of four urban populations of the bush snail Bradybaena fruticum (Mull.), which started with enriching their gene pool in 2003 and finished with monitoring in 2005, has revealed a shift in the frequencies of the stripe allele of shells. Further control over the condition of the gene pool of the rehabilitated populations (2017–2019) has revealed constancy of the frequency of this feature since 2005 within two generations of snails, including two populations where p < 0.01 and one where p < 0.05. Thus, the monitoring of the results of the experiment to enrich the gene pool of populations confirms that the patented method for maintaining population viability proves effective for restoration of the genetic diversity and viability of animal populations.

The influence of citrus orchard age on the ecology of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes

ABSTRACT A three-year survey of the ecology of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) and entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) was undertaken on soils from citrus orchards of different ages to determine the influence of orchard age on the ecology of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes. The influence of mulch and irrigation method on the occurrence of EPN and EPF was also determined. Most of the isolates recovered (n = 810) were Beauveria sp. (87.88% of all isolates), followed by Metarhizium sp. (11.87% of all isolates). Only 0.24% of soil samples collected during this study tested positive for EPN. All EPN isolates recovered were Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. No significant differences in EPF occurrence were recorded between orchards under drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation. EPF occurrence was significantly lower (P = 0.016) in orchards covered by mulch (31.85% ± 2.07% occurrence) than in orchards with no covering (38.57% ± 1.57% occurrence). EPF occurrence of 40.33 ± 2.13% was highest in non-bearing orchards, followed by mature orchards (nine years or older) (36.76 ± 2.05% of samples) with the lowest EPF occurrence of 25.30 ± 2.02% reported in juvenile orchards (four to eight years old). Juvenile orchards sustain significantly less EPF than mature and non-bearing orchards because of the combined negative impact of less favourable environmental conditions (lower shade density) and fungicide applications.

Rapid metabolite response in leaf blade and petiole as a marker for shade avoidance syndrome

BackgroundShade avoidance syndrome (SAS) commonly occurs in plants experiencing vegetative shade, causing morphological and physiological changes that are detrimental to plant health and consequently crop yield. As the effects of SAS on plants are irreversible, early detection of SAS in plants is critical for sustainable agriculture. However, conventional methods to assess SAS are restricted to observing for morphological changes and checking the expression of shade-induced genes after homogenization of plant tissues, which makes it difficult to detect SAS early.ResultsUsing the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, we introduced the use of Raman spectroscopy to measure shade-induced changes of metabolites in vivo. Raman spectroscopy detected a decrease in carotenoid contents in leaf blades and petioles of plants with SAS, which were induced by low Red:Far-red light ratio or high density conditions. Moreover, by measuring the carotenoid Raman peaks, we were able to show that the reduction in carotenoid content under shade was mediated by phytochrome signaling. Carotenoid Raman peaks showed more remarkable response to SAS in petioles than leaf blades of plants, which greatly corresponded to their morphological response under shade or high plant density. Most importantly, carotenoid content decreased shortly after shade induction but before the occurrence of visible morphological changes. We demonstrated this finding to be similar in other plant species. Comprehensive testing of Brassica vegetables showed that carotenoid content decreased during SAS, in both shade and high density conditions. Likewise, carotenoid content responded quickly to shade, in a manner similar to Arabidopsis plants.ConclusionsIn various plant species tested in this study, quantification of carotenoid Raman peaks correlate to the severity of SAS. Moreover, short-term exposure to shade can induce the carotenoid Raman peaks to decrease. These findings highlight the carotenoid Raman peaks as a biomarker for early diagnosis of SAS in plants.

Evaluation of Farmers Management Practices of Arabica Coffee Plantation Across Altitude for Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in Aceh, Indonesia

The productivity of Arabica coffee in low-altitude areas in Aceh have been declined, caused by an increase in temperatures, and by pests and diseases attack. This study aims to develop adaptation strategies to climate change in Aceh trough understanding how coffee productivity correlates with the management practices across the altitude. To find out a correlation between farming practices variables and coffee productivity, Spearman's rank test was used. To assess whether farming practice explanatory variables affected by the altitudes, a non-parametric with the Kruskal-Wallis Test, with Tukey’s post-hoc test (P0.05) with Chi-square distance were used. The results showed that coffee productivity was positively and significantly correlated to pruning, weeding, application of fertilizer, and application of pest and disease control, but was not to coffee plant density, sustainability certification, land conservation, and age of the coffee plant. Adaptation strategies for farmers in higher altitudes are to maintain the coffee plant density as well as shade density at an optimum level, followed by increasing management practices such as pruning, weeding, application of fertilizer, and pest and diseases control; in lower altitudes, those are to increase shade density both with Leucaena and multipurpose plants such as avocado and citrus, as well as increasing management practices such as land conservation, pruning, weeding, application of fertilizer and pest and diseases control. In middle altitudes, those are to maintain and improve management practices applied

Shade and Irrigation Effects on Growth, Flowering, Pod Yields and Cacao Tree Survival Following 5 Years of Continuous Dry Season Irrigation

The effects of plantain shade and dry season irrigation on the growth, field survival, flowering and pod production of cacao was investigated. Treatments were a 2 by 2 factorial combinations of shade regimes (Unshaded/open sun and shaded) and irrigation intervals (5-day and 10-day intervals) arranged in a split-plot design. There was an unirrigated but shaded control. The shade regimes constituted the main plot while irrigation intervals were the sub-plot treatments. The growth, dry season survival, flowering and pod/bean yield characters of cacao were enhanced in the unshaded (open sun) compared with the shaded plants. The open sun treatment combined with 5-day irrigation produced the largest canopy development, flowering and pod production compared with shading-irrigation combinations. The shade-irrigation ameliorated microclimate and enhanced growth and development, flowering and uniform fruiting/pod production and total bean yield and reduced dry season mortality (whole tree death, branch and twig dieback). For the non-irrigated but shaded cacao, about 30% dry season mortality (branch and twig dieback) were obtained. Air temperatures within the cacao field were highest for open sun cacao followed by moderate and dense shade respectively. Flowers were more profuse for unshaded (open sun) cocoa compared with the shaded while the yield and yield components of cacao for each harvest dates and total pod and bean yields were significantly different between the unshaded and shaded cacao regimes. Trees that were irrigated at 5-day intervals produced significantly (P &lt; 0.05) higher LAI, branching, flowers and pods compared with those irrigated at 10-day intervals. The 5-day irrigation interval significantly increased percentage of trees bearing flowers and pods, and produced larger number, and heavier pods and beans compared with the 10-day interval. The drip irrigation strategy adopted ameliorated dry season terminal drought (hydrothermal stresses) in cacao. This is a veritable tool to scale up growth, survival, establishment and flower/pod production.

Nitrous oxide, methane, and ammonia emissions from cattle excreta on Brachiaria decumbens growing in monoculture or silvopasture with Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus grandis

We quantified nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ammonia (NH3) emissions from cattle urine and dung patches on Brachiaria decumbens growing in a long-term silvopasture (SPS) or in monoculture (MONO) during the annual rainy and dry periods in southwest Brazil. We hypothesized that microenvironmental changes triggered by dense shade and litter, provided by trees, and pasture quality in SPS would affect greenhouse gas emissions from cattle excreta. Two field trials (rainy and dry season) were carried out using manual closed static chambers in a 3 × 2 factorial scheme, corresponding to three excreta types (urine, dung, and control without excreta) and two pasture systems (SPS and MONO), in a block design with three blocks and two replicates per block (n = 6 per treatment). Generally, N2O and CH4 fluxes were higher in SPS than in MONO. Notably, N losses in the form of N2O did not exceed 0.10 %, except for N2O emissions from urine deposited during the rainy season in SPS (0.39 % of applied N). Cattle dung was also a source of CH4. The highest fluxes were observed under SPS during the rainy season, but emissions were generally low, with emission rates < 0.1 kg CH4 head−1 yr−1. The highest N losses by NH3 volatilization were observed for urine under MONO, amounting to 8.3 % of total N applied during the rainy season and 17.1 % during the dry season. Our results demonstrate that N2O, CH4, and NH3 emissions from cattle are influenced by pasture system, excreta type, and season. N2O and CH4 emissions increase in long-term SPS, while NH3 losses reduce.

Is shadier better? The effect of agroforestry management on small mammal diversity

AbstractAgroforestry systems play fundamental roles for wildlife conservation, but are prone to disturbances from management practices aiming at increasing local productivity. This work investigates the small mammal assemblages present in cacao agroforests, which differ in shade tree density. We tested the prediction that higher tree density increases shade level, analyzed how some environmental variables important for small mammals (vegetation complexity, tree basal area, and invertebrate biomass) vary across the shade level gradient, and how the assemblages respond to these variations. We also tested the effect of the environmental variables on the abundance of the three most common species: Rhipidomys mastacalis, Hylaeamys seuanezi, and Marmosa murina. We captured 651 individuals belonging to 18 species. A positive relationship was observed between an abundance of non‐forest specialists and tree basal area, while species diversity within this group showed positive association with vegetation complexity. Assemblage structure (described by a matrix of species abundance per site) was not affected by our environmental variables, but R. mastacalis was more abundant in sites with lower vegetation complexity. Higher shade levels in cacao agroforest tended to occur in sites with greater tree basal area, which was not a good predictor of small mammal diversity. This suggests that environmental management to reduce shade with the purpose of increasing cacao productivity is not necessarily negative for small mammal conservation. Species diversity was favored by structurally complex systems, a possible response to greater niche diversity.Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.

Contribution of shade trees to wind dynamics and pathogen dispersal on the edge of coffee agroforestry systems: A functional traits approach

Through microclimate modifications, coffee agroforestry systems have both facilitative and inhibitory effects on the persistence of Hemileia vastatrix, a major fungal pathogen. Wind, a key element in the dispersal of H. vastatrix uredospores, is affected by shade tree presence, especially at the edge of agroforestry systems. However, little is known on how shade tree leaf functional and canopy-level architectural traits impact wind dynamics and subsequent airborne uredospore dispersal in this transition zone. In this study, we determine the contribution of shade tree leaf functional and canopy traits to changes in throughflow wind speeds and H. vastatrix uredospore dispersal at the edge of coffee agroforests across three size classes of the shade tree Erythrina poeppigiana (sparse (pruned shade trees), medium (conventional management) and dense (mature, larger, unpruned shade trees)). As expected, dense shade trees reduced throughflow speeds into the farm more frequently than the other size classes. Shade tree leaf functional traits (e.g. specific leaf area, leaf thickness, leaf angle) expressed high variability (coefficient of variations: 13.67%–89.48%) across the size classes and significantly predicted throughflow speed reductions (r2 = 0.891, P = 0.002). Emerging mature uredospore counts were significantly lower (P < 0.001) on the leeward side of dense shade trees, yet high reductions in throughflow speed into the farm were related to increased airborne uredospore capture across all size classes in these agroforestry systems. Seemingly, trade-offs exist between reduced wind speeds that decrease uredospore dispersal and reduced wind speeds that encourage uredospore settling into the coffee canopy at the edge of farms. This suggests a level of “fluidity” in desirable shade tree traits throughout the agroforestry system design. Our findings highlight the complexity of uredospore movement in agroforestry systems and the important role of shade tree canopy and leaf functional traits in wind dynamics.

Effects of complex cocoa-based agroforests on citrus tree decline

Citrus are important fruit crops of high economic and ecological importance in southern Cameroon. Smallholders usually plant citrus in complex cocoa-based agroforests (CBAS). Health and productivity of citrus are generally jeopardized by a wide range of pests and diseases for which environmental conditions can be critical drivers. An assessment of the effects of two structural characteristics of CBAS on citrus tree decline (CTD) intensity and six pests and diseases that induce it was conducted in 26 farms. The study was carried out in four citrus-growing basins in the Centre Region of Cameroon between June and September 2016. Observations were made by visual recognition of CTD, as well as disease symptoms and pest damage. Their intensity or abundance was assessed using a scale ranging from 1 to 4. Depending on the situation of citrus trees in the CBAS and with regard to the upper strata, three shade level (dense, moderate and no shade), and three spatial structural patterns (aggregate, random and regular) were defined. Results showed that, CTD intensity under dense shade conditions was significantly low (P < 0.001), as compared to those in moderate and no shade conditions. Plots with aggregated or random spatial structure of citrus trees showed significantly higher CTD intensities (P < 0.001) compared to those with a regular spatial structure of citrus trees. The involvement of CBAS structural characteristics in CTD regulation has been demonstrated and could contribute to the development of an integrated management tool for citrus pests and diseases in an associated crop context.

Coffee production during the transition period from monoculture to agroforestry systems in near optimal growing conditions, in Yunnan Province

Large-scale conversions from monoculture arabica coffee systems to agroforestry systems started in 2012 in southern Yunnan Province. This study analyses the impact of young shade trees (Cinnamomum camphora, Bishofia javanica and Jacaranda mimosifolia) on microclimate, coffee fruit development cycle, coffee yield, and coffee quality only 4 years after their introduction. The results show that young shade trees reduced diurnal fluctuations in temperatures, buffered high temperatures in the rainy season (−3 to −6°C), and protected coffee trees from cold temperatures in the dry season (+0.5 to +1°C). Coffee flower set decreased with shade intensity, as did fruit losses during the bean filling and maturation stages. Consequently, coffee trees under B. javanica and J. mimosifolia, which both provide light shade intensity, produced yields similar to those of coffee trees in open conditions. Only coffee trees under the dense shade of C. camphora had lower yields. Shade trees did not affect the physical and organoleptic attributes of coffee beans. This study hence demonstrates that carefully selected shade trees can rapidly provide positive ecosystem services related to microclimate and coffee physiology, while maintaining a coffee yield and quality similar to those found in monoculture coffee systems. With their diffused shade, B. javanica and J. mimosifolia are suitable options for the agro-ecological intensification of coffee systems, while the use of C. camphora requires active management and pruning practices in order to sustain high coffee yield.

EFFECTS OF SHADE TREE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SPECIES ON PHOTOSYNTHETIC RATE OF COFFEE TREES

The use of shade trees in coffee fields have been motivated by climatic changes. However, microclimatic conditions in shaded coffee fields differ due to shade tree spatial distribution and species, altering physiological responses of coffee trees. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of shade tree spatial distribution and species on coffee trees photosynthetic rate in two growth seasons, of high (HSD) and low (LSD) sink demand. The experimental design consisted of randomized blocks with three replicates in split-split-plots. Plots were the shade tree species: &lt;em&gt;Anadenanthera falcata&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Cassia grandis&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Peltophorum dubium&lt;/em&gt;. Split plot was formed by five distances between coffee trees and shade tree trunks: coffee trees on planting row of shade trees, distancing one (D1L) and five (D5L) meters from shade trees trunk; coffee trees on inter-rows of shade trees, parallel to D1L and D5L (D1E and D5E); coffee trees distancing 77 meters from shade tree trunks, in a full-sun field (PS). The split-split-plots correspond to coffee tree canopy exposure to the sun: branches facing North or South. Shade trees canopy density and occupation was evaluated with a convex densiometer. Photosynthetic rate (Pn)and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) were measured with an Infrared Gas Analyzer (IRGA) on two time-frames, between 7.00 and 9.00 solar hours and between 11.00 and 13.00. Shade tree canopy density and occupation was not homogenous during the change of seasons and shift due to spatial distribution, which also changes PAR levels. Shade trees reduce PAR to more suitable values for coffee tree exploitation, especially on D1L and D5L. During HSD, shading did not affect P&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;, which was greater in branches facing North. Yet, in LSD, between 11.00 and 13.00, coffee trees shaded with &lt;em&gt;A. falcata&lt;/em&gt; showed greater P&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; than at PS. Coffee trees shaded with &lt;em&gt;C. grandis&lt;/em&gt; at D5L and D1E had greater values of P&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; than PS.

Invasive plant species in the forest parks of Yekaterinburg

Invasive species – introduced species, spontaneously settled outside their natural range, and successfully adapted to the new growing conditions. The problem of invasive species penetration, both herbaceous and woody, has long been a concern of scientists, their views on this issue being contradictory. In the forest parks of Yekaterinburg there is a significant number of introduced species – invasive species. The occurrence of invasive species was considered in three forest parks of the city. The article shows invasive species high occurrence, wide amplitude of ecological plasticity, lack of response to shade density conditions in forest parks and urban plantations. They easily adapt to the conditions of different shade density and increased recreational load, both in urban areas plantations and in the conditions of a forest park. The studied species can be recommended for use in urban parks and forest parks. Cotoneaster lucidus Schlecht. and Amelanchier spicata (Lam.) K. Koch. are quite decorative and can be used both in the formation of edges, landscape groups and as undergrowth species.

Harishankari: ancient and environmental importance

Peepal, Bargad and Pakad plants have collectively been described as Harishankari. They provide dense shade, shelter and food to a variety of birds and animals besides other living being. Loaded with medicinal properties, they also emanate health, energy, holiness and spiritual feelings to human beings. Their plantation is also useful in environmental and biodiversity conservation efforts.

Expression shifts of floral symmetry genes correlate to flower actinomorphy in East Asia endemic Conandron ramondioides (Gesneriaceae)

BackgroundBilateral symmetry flower (zygomorphy) is the ancestral state for Gesneriaceae species. Yet independent reversions to actinomorphy have been parallelly evolved in several lineages. Conandron ramondioides is a natural radially symmetrical species survived in dense shade mountainous habitats where specialist pollinators are scarce. Whether the mutations in floral symmetry genes such as CYC, RAD and DIV genes, or their expression pattern shifts contribute to the reversion to actinomorphy in C. ramondioides thus facilitating shifts to generalist pollinators remain to be investigated. To address this, we isolated putative orthologues of these genes and relate their expressions to developmental stages of flower actinomorphy.ResultsTissue specific RT-PCR found no dorsal identity genes CrCYCs and CrRADs expression in petal and stamen whorls, while the ventral identity gene CrDIV was expressed in all petals. Thus, ventralized actinomorphy is evolved in C. ramondioides. However, CrCYCs still persists their expression in sepal whorl. This is congruent with previous findings that CYC expression in sepals is an ancestral state common to both actinomorphic and zygomorphic core Eudicot species.ConclusionsThe loss of dorsal identity genes CrCYCs and CrRADs expression in petal and stamen whorl without mutating these genes specifies that a novel regulation change, possibly on cis-elements of these genes, has evolved to switch zygomorphy to actinomorphy.