Sexual Reoffending Research Articles

Antisociality, Sexual Deviance, and Sexual Reoffending in Juvenile Sex Offenders

A meta-analysis was conducted to analyze recidivism rates and assess the role of antisociality and sexual deviancy in sexual reoffending in juvenile sex offenders. The importance of these constructs is discussed with regard to current theory and in light of methodological and conceptual limitations of previous studies.

Case formulation with sex offenders: An illustration of individualized risk assessment.

There has been a rapid expansion of the professional literature in risk assessment with sexual offenders over the past 20 years. However, recent professional experience suggests that risk assessment reports often fail to be as relevant or useful as they might be for judicial decision-makers. Research with large samples of offenders has refined our understanding of identifiable subgroups with different rates of sexual reoffending, but the management of risk requires that we deal effectively with individual offenders. One area that can be improved is the development of case formulations of risk. Clinicians must move beyond the mechanical use of actuarial static and dynamic risk factors to a broader integration of relevant information about the individual if they are to assist in managing risk in a way that serves the needs of the offender while protecting public safety.

ELIMINATE RESIDENCY RESTRICTIONS FOR SEX OFFENDERS

Sometimes legislation is passed based on the support of research or the results of successful programming. More often, however, legislation is passed based on the demands of a constituency group or public outcry. Perhaps the clearest instances of legislation being passed in response to public outcry are laws involving sex offenders. The initial passage of many sex offender laws was in response to high-profile sexual attacks on children. To calm and reassure the public and to mourn the lost children, many of these laws were passed quickly without fully understanding the consequences (Fein, 1995; Freeman-Longo, 1996). Research has determined that many provisions of these laws do little to control reoffending and that many create unintended consequences that may do more harm than good. This article addresses a particular type of sex offender law: residency restrictions. It examines the research that shows problems with residency restrictions. It discusses efforts to repeal sex offender residency restrictions and the rationale behind doing so. It ends with a call to modify residency restriction laws and to create more effective ways of controlling sexual reoffending.

Validity of the Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol—II (J-Soap-II) in a Sample of Urban Minority Youth

Despite recent advances in risk assessment procedures, relatively little research has targeted validation of procedures with sexually offending minority youth. The current study used retrospective coding of the Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol—II (J-SOAP-II; Prentky & Righthand, 2003) with a group of 60 male youth of mostly Latino and African American ethnicity. Correlational and receiver operating curve (ROC) analyses were used to test the J-SOAP-II's relationship with and accuracy in predicting general reoffense, sexual reoffense, and treatment compliance. The J-SOAP-II total score was significantly correlated with all three of these outcome variables, and ROC analyses demonstrated a high degree of accuracy in predicting general (area under the curve [AUC] = .76) and sexual reoffending (AUC = .78). There was mixed support for the J-SOAP-II individual subscales, with Dynamic subscales consistently outperforming Static subscales. The implications of this research for juvenile sex-offender risk assessments are discussed.

Changes in Coping Following Treatment for Child Molesters

Relapse prevention theory assumes that specific coping skills deficits contribute to sexual reoffending. Recent research suggests that the general coping style of sexual offenders is also ineffective. In this study changes were examined in specific and general coping deficits following a treatment program that incorporated specific skills training as well as modifying general styles. Treated incarcerated child molesters were compared to a group of incarcerated child molesters on a waiting list for treatment. Groups completed various measures aimed at identifying coping strategies used in specific high-risk situations and general coping styles. Compared to the waiting list group, treated child molesters identified more effective coping strategies in specific high-risk situations. Changes are noted in their general coping styles with an increase in the endorsement of task-focused strategies and social diversion strategies. No changes in their endorsement of ineffective strategies such as emotion-focused or distraction strategies occurred. Implications for treatment are discussed.

Risk assessment of child-victim sex offenders for extended supervision in New Zealand

Recently enacted legislation in New Zealand, the Parole (Extended Supervision) Amendment Act 2004, allows for the imposition of up to 10 years of supervision in the community for child-victim sex offenders following their release from prison. The Act requires reports to be written specifically assessing the risk of sexual re-offending against children. This study examined the application of actuarial measures used by the New Zealand Department of Corrections in these assessments, including a computer-scored instrument based on static factors (the Automated Sexual Recidivism Scale; ASRS) and a clinically-based judgement of dynamic risk factors (the SONAR). It was expected that a conservative approach would be taken in making recommendations for or against extended periods of supervision, such that a high score on either measure would predict a recommendation for extended supervision. It was found, however, that a more individualized approach was often taken, whereby a baseline assessment of risk as predicted by the ASRS was adjusted by clinicians based on SONAR ratings. Implications for the practice of risk assessment in sexual re-offending are discussed.

Assessing risk for sexual offenders in New Zealand: Development and validation of a computer-scored risk measure

A growing research base supports the predictive validity of actuarial methods of risk assessment with sexual offenders. These methods use clearly defined variables with demonstrated empirical association with re-offending. The advantages of actuarial measures for screening large numbers of offenders quickly and economically are further enhanced when the variables used can be extracted from existing electronic databases. This study reports the results of applying a computerized set of historical variables with a sample of 1,133 male sexual offenders released from prison by the New Zealand Department of Corrections. Area under the curve figures of 0.70–0.78 were obtained over periods of 5 to 15 years, reflecting a significant level of association with sexual recidivism. Detected rates of re-offending across risk levels were comparable to those previously reported for the Static-99. Rates of sexual re-offending by child molesters for all sexual offences and offences against child victims are reported separately.

Prediction of the risk of male sexual reoffending in Australia

This paper reports the findings of a retrospective study designed, primarily, to investigate the predictive accuracy of the Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offence Recidivism (RRASOR); the Static 99 and two models developed in Western Australia, namely the Violent Offender Treatment Program Risk Assessment Scale (VOTPRAS) and the 3-Predictor model on a Western Australian sample of violent and nonviolent sexual offenders. A secondary aim was to establish whether the instruments are equally valid for Indigenous and non-Indigenous, and violent and nonviolent sexual offenders. The data of 538 convicted sexual offenders, who were assessed by the Sex Offender Treatment Program of the Western Australian Department of Justice from 1987 to 2002, were used. The predictor variables were the total scores obtained for each instrument and the outcome variable a conviction in a court for a further sexual offence and, in the case of the VOTPRAS, also a further violent offence. In general the predictive accuracy of the 3-Predictor model was the best, followed by the Static 99, the RRASOR and last, the VOTPRAS. The study provides tentative support for the argument that risk assessment tools that were developed overseas should not be used with Indigenous people without further research and that different assessment tools should be developed for violent and nonviolent sexual offenders respectively.

Sexually abusive youth: A review of recidivism studies and methodological issues for future research

This paper is a critical review of the recidivism studies on sexually abusive youth. Recidivism studies looking at sexually abusive youth have only appeared in the literature in the last 10 to 15 years and the small number of published studies, along with difficulties in defining recidivism, have affected the quality of outcome data. The most consistent criteria for recidivism applied in the literature uses official records to determine subsequent arrests and/or convictions for sexual and/or non-sexual offences. However, official records are conservative and so will underestimate recidivism rates. Recidivism rates for sexually abusive youth who have received treatment for sexual re-offending are approximately 10%, though rates vary greatly (0% to 42%), while recidivism rates for non-sexual offending are higher (ranging between 8% and 52%). Research indicates that comparison groups of untreated sexually abusive youth have higher rates of sexual and non-sexual re-offending than those who have received treatment. Specific recommendations are made for strengthening research design in future studies. These include using multiple sources to determine recidivism (e.g. official records, self-report, family report and standardised psychological tools), having comparison groups of treatment dropouts and untreated sexually abusive youth and including long-term, longitudinal follow-up of youth.

Violent Sex Offenses: How are they Best Measured from Official Records?

In the United States, sexually violent predator (SVP) commitment statutes generally require assessment of an offender's risk of subsequent sexual violence. Current actuarial methods for predicting sexual reoffending were actually designed to predict something else-charges or convictions for offenses deemed sexual based on information obtained from police "rapsheets" alone. This study examined the referral and past offenses of 177 sex offenders. Results showed that police rapsheets (and data based on them) underestimated the number and severity of sexually motivated violent offenses for which sex offenders were actually apprehended. Rapsheet violent offenses seemed a more accurate index of the conduct addressed by SVP legislation than were rapsheet sex offenses. We suggest that, when evaluating sex offenders for SVP status, actuarial instruments designed to predict violent recidivism (as measured by rapsheet violent reoffenses) might be preferable to those designed to predict sexual recidivism (as measured by rapsheet sexual reoffenses).

Juvenile Sex Offender Re-Arrest Rates for Sexual, Violent Nonsexual and Property Crimes: A 10-Year Follow-Up

We report the results of a 10-year follow-up recidivism study of two sex offender treatment programs for incarcerated juvenile sex offenders (JSOs) in Virginia. The programs vary in environment and intensity. The more intense JSO program ("self-contained") operates in specialized living units that are separate from those of the general juvenile incarcerated population. In the less intense program ("prescriptive"), JSOs remain housed with the general population of juvenile offenders. Arrest and incarceration data through January 2003 were obtained for 261 male JSOs released between 1992 and 2001. The inclusion of adult incarceration data allowed for a more accurate assessment of the actual time at risk for sexual re-offending. Outcomes are re-arrest rates, length of time to re-arrest and type of offense (property, nonsexual assault, sexual) on re-arrest, with analyses using survival curve functions. For both groups, actual re-arrest is most likely to be for a nonsexual person offense (31 and 47%, respectively) and least likely to be for a sexual offense (<5% for both groups). Comparing the nonequivalent groups, the self-contained treatment group has a lower predicted re-arrest rate and a longer mean time to re-arrest, for all types of offenses, than the prescriptive treatment group. In addition, juveniles who indicate high levels of impulsive/antisocial behaviors are significantly more likely to recidivate compared to juveniles with low-levels of impulsive/antisocial behaviors, regardless of treatment type. This is the first 10-year follow-up study of treatment outcomes for a relatively large sample of males who were incarcerated for sexual offenses as juveniles.

Treatment of Juveniles Who Sexually Offend: An Overview

SUMMARY Juvenile sexual offending is increasingly being recognized as a serious crime among youth. The prevalence of sexual offending and sexual reoffending suggests that many juvenile sex offenders (JSOs) may repeat their offending behaviors if not treated. However, clinical trials evaluating specific interventions are virtually nonexistent. Instead, the literature on the treatment of JSOs is marked by discussions of strategies that are hypothesized to be beneficial, as well as descriptions of treatment programs that exist across the country. Further, while existing literature suggests that treatment for JSOs may deter future sexual offending behaviors, it is unclear which, if any, aspects of these treatments promote the development of positive behaviors. A discussion of existing treatment approaches, effectiveness, and treatment considerations follows.

Treatment of Adult Sexual Offenders: A Therapeutic Cognitive-Behavioural Model of Intervention

SUMMARY Recent research indicates that, of the various forms of treatment available to sexual offenders, cognitive-behavioural methods are likely to have the greatest impact in reducing rates of sexual re-offending. Cognitive-behavioural treatment typically targets attitudes that support sexual offending, anger management, victim empathy, deviant sexual arousal, and relapse prevention. More recently, treatment has targeted cognitive processes more generally, management of other emotional states in addition to anger, intimacy deficits, and risk self-management (Marshall, Anderson, & Fernandez, 1999; Yates, Goguen, Nicholaichuk, Williams, & Long, 2000). This article describes the components of cognitive-behavioural treatment with sexual offenders, including recent developments, assessment, treatment methods, and the importance of therapist characteristics on the therapeutic process and on treatment outcome.

Recidivism Among Male Juvenile Sexual Offenders in Western Australia

Juvenile sexual offenders form a substantial part of the sexual offender population and a subset of them will continue offending against the person in general, and sexually in particular, into adulthood. Part of a strategy to reduce offending against the person, and sexual offending specifically, should therefore be to identify and treat high-risk juvenile sexual offenders. To identify the characteristics of such offenders, recidivism studies are traditionally used. After reviewing 11 recidivism studies we briefly discuss the difficulty of comparing the recidivism rates found by them. We then report the findings of a study that examined the official records of 326 male juvenile sexual offenders convicted in Western Australia from January 1990 to June 1998. During the follow-up period almost 7 in 10 of the offenders reoffended. Most were convicted of non-sexual offences, with only 1 in 10 convicted of new sexual offences. Offenders who reoffended against the person (sexual and non-sexual), constituted more than one-third of the total sample. Stepwise logistic regression analyses failed to identify variables that are useful to predict sexual reoffending, but identified variables that predict further offending against the person. Western Australian juvenile sexual offenders who consistently offend against the person appear to start offending at a younger age and have a general offending history that, among other offences, includes a violent sexual offence.

Recidivism Among Male Juvenile Sexual Offenders in Western Australia

Juvenile sexual offenders form a substantial part of the sexual offender population and a subset of them will continue offending against the person in general, and sexually in particular, into adulthood. Part of a strategy to reduce offending against the person, and sexual offending specifically, should therefore be to identify and treat high-risk juvenile sexual offenders. To identify the characteristics of such offenders, recidivism studies are traditionally used. After reviewing 11 recidivism studies we briefly discuss the difficulty of comparing the recidivism rates found by them. We then report the findings of a study that examined the official records of 326 male juvenile sexual offenders convicted in Western Australia from January 1990 to June 1998. During the follow-up period almost 7 in 10 of the offenders reoffended. Most were convicted of non-sexual offences, with only 1 in 10 convicted of new sexual offences. Offenders who reoffended against the person (sexual and non-sexual), constituted more than one-third of the total sample. Stepwise logistic regression analyses failed to identify variables that are useful to predict sexual reoffending, but identified variables that predict further offending against the person. Western Australian juvenile sexual offenders who consistently offend against the person appear to start offending at a younger age and have a general offending history that, among other offences, includes a violent sexual offence.

Risk Assessment: What is Being Predicted by Actuarial Prediction Instruments?

There is an ongoing debate between actuarial and clinical approaches to assessment of risk for violent recidivism where previous studies on predictive validity are said to have yielded results favouring actuarial assessments. However, these studies have all used a dichotomous outcome (recidivism “yes” or “no”) as the criterion variable. In order to not only predict but also manage recidivism risk and prevent future violence, there is a need to elaborate on the criterion variable in actuarial assessments and also consider the imminence, frequency, nature, and severity of potential reoffending. We revisited a database of actuarial risk assessments referring to a nationwide 5-year cohort of all adult men released from prison after having served a prison sentence for sexual offending. Sexually recidivistic behaviors were coded for individuals sexually reconvicted during an average follow-up of 6 years. Actuarial procedures had overall areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of .73 and .75 concerning any sexual reoffending. However, when the procedures were reevaluated using various outcome measures, the predictive validity ranged from AUC of .40 to .94. Actuarial risk assessment schemes worked well for imminent and less severe reoffending but were less accurate concerning repeated and injurious sexual reoffenses, and were of no value at all to discriminate intrafamilial recidivists from nonrecidivists. Replication of these preliminary findings would suggest that whereas actuarial approaches are optimized to predict the common (but less severe) occurrences of sexual reoffending, they might be of less value to inform on the assessment of risk for the more clinically worrying, severe (but less common) sexual recidivism.

Prediction of recidivism in exhibitionists: psychological, phallometric, and offense factors.

Exhibitionists have traditionally been regarded as nuisance offenders. However, empirical studies show that some offenders can be highly recidivistic and can escalate to incidents of Hands-on sexual assault. The objective of this study was to investigate predictors of recidivism in exhibitionists and clarify the differences between Hands-on and Hands-off sexual recidivists. The hundred and twenty-one exhibitionists were assessed at a university teaching hospital between 1983 and 1996. Archival data came from medical files and police files. The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) was assessed retrospectively. Results indicated that over a mean follow-up period of 6.84 years, 11.7, 16.8, and 32.7% of exhibitionists were charged with or convicted of sexual, violent, or criminal offenses, respectively. Sexual reoffending recidivists were less educated, and had more prior sexual and criminal offenses. Violent, recidivists were also less educated, had lower Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory (DSFI) scores, higher PCL-R Totals, and more prior sexual, violent, and criminal offenses. Criminal recidivists were younger, less educated, had lower DSFI scores, higher PCL-R scores, higher Pedophile Indices, and more prior sexual, violent, and criminal offenses. Hands-on sexual recidivists demonstrated higher PCL-R ratings, higher Pedophile and Rape indices, and more prior sexual, violent, and criminal offenses than did Hands-off counterparts.

Assessment of risk for criminal recidivism among rapists: A Comparison of four different measures

The cross-cultural validity of North American instruments for the assessment of risk for criminal recidivism is currently being investigated in various European settings. This study explored the predictive accuracy of four risk assessment measures among rapists in Sweden; the Sexual Violence Risk-20 (SVR-20; Boer et al., 1997a) and the Rapid Risk Assessment for Sex Offense Recidivism (RRASOR; Hanson, 1997), both specifically constructed for use with sex offenders, the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 1991), and the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG; Webster et al., 1994). All individuals convicted of rape and diagnosed with personality disorder at pre-trial forensic psychiatric assessment in Sweden 1988–1990 (n = 51, all male) were followed with respect to criminal reconvictions for an average of 92 months after release/discharge from prison or forensic psychiatric treatment. When intervening incarcerations were taken into account, average extra-institutional time-at-risk was 73 months. Base-rates for sexual, violent non-sexual, and any violent (including sexual) reconvictions were 20%, 25%, and 39%, respectively. Only the RRASOR exhibited predictive accuracy for sexual recidivism significantly better than chance with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of .73 (95% confidence interval: .56–.90). PCL-R, VRAG, and SVR-20 psychosocial adjustment subscale scores were associated with increased risk for violent non-sex recidivism. The data propose preliminary cross-cultural predictive validity of the RRASOR for the assessment of risk for sexual reoffending. Results also suggest that the SVR-20 should be further evaluated before used routinely in clinical settings.

Risk for Criminal Recidivism Among Young Sex Offenders

Several authors have emphasized the need for empirically derived instruments for reoffending risk assessment among young sex offenders (YSOs). The authors screened the literature on sex offenders for clinically or empirically motivated variables related to criminal recidivism, identifying 22 putative risk factors. All Swedish YSOs (aged 15-20) subjected to court-ordered forensic psychiatric investigations from 1988 through 1995 and available for follow-up (n = 46) were included (mean time at risk = 5 years). Base rates for sexual and general recidivism were 20% and 65%, respectively. Previous criminality, early onset conduct disorder, psychopathy, and use of death threats and weapons at index sex crime proved predictive of general but not sexual recidivism. Factors indicative of sexual deviance (early onset sexually abusive behavior, male victim choice, more than one victim) and poor social skills were associated with elevated risk for sexual reoffending. However, replication in independent samples is needed to corroborate these preliminary findings.

A Ten-Year Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Perpetrators of Sexual Assault Against Children

The purpose of this study was to follow the transition of adolescent perpetrators of sexual assault against children upon their return to the community to help determine the minimal base level of risk they present for sexual and other re-offending. The results of this study found that the majority of adolescent perpetrators of sexual assault against children re-offended, but were not involved in another sexual assault. Twelve percent of the sample re-offended sexually, 66% were convicted of non-sexual offenses, and 22% were not convicted of any offenses during the follow-up period. This study also found that the risk of sexual re-offense continued throughout the ten-year follow-up, and that the majority of first sexual offenses post-release occurred between years zero and five. Additional research recommendations are made.