Sexual Double Standards Research Articles

Invariance of Spanish version of Sexual Double Standard Scale across sex, age, and education level.

The Sexual Double Standard Scale (SDSS) is one of the most widely-used scales for evaluating the Sexual Double Standard (SDS) and the Spanish version of the scale displays adequate psychometric properties in the adult Spanish population. The aim of this study is to examine the factorial invariance and differential item functioning (DIF) of the Spanish version according to sex, education level, and age, with the objective of describing and comparing SDS based on these variables. A sample of 3,838 heterosexual participants was used (1,908 men and 1,930 women) between the ages of 18 and 90. The results showed that the factorial structure of the SDSS is invariant in terms of sex and education level; with none of these items displaying DIF. Only items 11 and 14 display DIF in terms of age and, therefore, it is recommended that these items be excluded when making comparisons between age ranges. The association of SDSS with sex, education level, and age follows the expected results. The Spanish version of the SDSS is invariant and, as a consequence, can be used in different types of samples.

Sexual Double Standard: A Psychometric Study From a Macropsychological Perspective Among the Spanish Heterosexual Population.

In the context of heterosexual relationships, the sexual double standard (SDS) leads to a more negative assessment of women than men when they exhibit the same sexual behavior. This work assumes that in Western democratic societies, the individual attitude toward SDS takes different forms due to the processes of conviction regarding the social norm that exists on this matter. Therefore, the individual attitude toward SDS will depend on the person’s perception of what others think about that topic. We distinguish between self-referred response, it refers to subjects’ personal endorsement of the SDS, and responses hetero-referred, subjects’ perception of sexual societal double standard. This paper presents a version of the Double Standard Scale (SDSS) that assesses the subjective perception of society’s support for the SDS. We examine its psychometric properties in a sample of Spanish population heterosexual of 1,206 individuals (50% males), distributed across three groups (18–34, 35–49, and 50 years old or older). We performed Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The final version consists of 18 item distributed into three factors (Acceptance for Male Sexual Shyness, Acceptance for Female Sexual Freedom and Acceptance for Traditional Double Standard). Said three-factor structure does not match with the two-factor structure of the self-referred form. Internal consistency, temporal stability and validity evidence are reported. This version of the SDSS is reliable and valid. No gender differences are found in the SDSS-H. However, the results show that the context of group membership, based on education and age, is differently associated with the response to SDSS-H. That is, higher scores are found for individuals with the highest education and for the youngest participants. We discuss the usefulness of this measure to improve the prediction of individual attitude toward SDS, as well as, to evaluate the SDS phenomenon at a level of macropsychological analysis.

Dismantling Winning Stories: Lessons From Applying Critical Literature Pedagogy toThe Odyssey

AbstractIn teaching canonical literature, presuming a text's merit and infallibility can inhibit the development of critical thought and may transmit values that are not socially and politically just. The author describes how educators can promote academic literacy and critical consciousness in their students through pedagogy that helps students critically analyze canonical texts, specifically the ancient Greek epic poemThe Odysseyby Homer. By implementing critical literature pedagogy, students can deconstruct problematic ideologies embedded inThe Odyssey, such as the text's promotion of patriarchy, violence against women, and sexual double standards. Using scholarship and examples of lessons and student work from an all‐male high school English classroom, the author demonstrates strategies that allow students to identify and disrupt dominant narratives that try to shape their actions and thoughts, and instead construct counternarratives that are more sociopolitically just and inclusive of perspectives marginalized or absent from the canon.

“I can see you”: The impact of implied social presence on visual attention to erotic and neutral stimuli in men and women

The watchful eye of others often leads people to alter their behaviour. Eye tracking methodology has been used to create implied social presence, as well as to examine gaze patterns to erotic stimuli, but the effects of implied social presence on visual attention to erotic and neutral stimuli remains largely unknown. In the present study, we examined precisely this issue. We compared looking behaviour of men and women who were either aware that their gaze patterns were being monitored (implied social presence) and those who lacked this knowledge (no implied presence). Women in the aware condition made significantly fewer fixations than men, whereas no such gender differences were found in the unaware condition. Across both conditions, men made significantly more fixations to the erotic stimuli compared to the neutral stimuli and the background. For women, no significant differences were found in the number of fixations to the erotic stimuli and the background, although women look at these areas more than the neutral stimuli. These results demonstrate that eye tracking creates an implied social presence, and this differentially affects the looking behaviour of women versus men. Moreover, gendered sexual norms coupled with the need to manage self-presentation may influence women’s sexual urges and expressions. The inhibition of sexuality displayed by women indicates that sexual double standards still exist in society and need to be addressed. As well, theoretical, methodological, and clinical implications of eye tracking methodology should be taken into consideration in future research.

Doing gender online through flirtation

The art of flirtation seems to have proliferated since the advent of Web 2.0 because, among other reasons, online communication is perceived as having lowered risk for embarrassment compared to in-person communication. My research explores the phenomenon of digitally mediated flirtation among American students that involves the formation of new sexual scripts or social norms for online interactions. Findings from interviews and focus groups with students at a small liberal arts college in the northeastern United States reveal the persistence of traditional gender norms within romantic relationships despite ambivalence towards sexual double standards. Heterosexual and queer students alike participate in the reification of gender inequality through their flirtatious interactions. Cultural constructions of risk, as shaped by ideologies of gender and sexuality, play a role in the development of online norms for romantic interactions. The inconsistencies between their awareness of gender inequality and their conventional approach to gender dynamics is evidence of the slow pace of social change in private relationships. This study has implications for understanding how heteronormativity and male dominance shape the ways in which young people do gender in the co-construction of developing digital cultures.

Prevalence of Rape Myths and Sexual Double Standards Among University Students in Pakistan.

This study aimed to determine the prevalence of rape myths and sexual double standards among Pakistani university students. The sample size was 500 university students. The results indicated that 76.8 % students had more belief in rape myths, while 23.2 % had less belief on rape myths. In total, 71.4% had less sexual double standards, while 28.6 % had more sexual double standards. Furthermore, results showed that men believed more in rape myths as compared with women. Young adults of age ranging from 17 to 24 years had high sexual double standards as compared with adults of the age range of 25 to 32 years. Moreover, findings of focus group discussions (FGDs) highlighted that rape myths and sexual double standards are highly prevalent. The study revealed that Pakistani students are gender biased, as power and authority are associated with men. They also shared that rape victims in Pakistan do not get any support from family; rather, in most cases, the rape victims are killed in the name of so-called honor to maintain the reputation of family in society.

남자 대학생의 섹슈얼리티에 대한 근거이론적 연구 : 이중적 성규범에 기반 한 성경험을 중심으로

본 연구의 목적은 근거이론을 활용해 남자 대학생의 섹슈얼리티를 구성하는 핵심적인 경험과 이에 영향을 미치는 조건들을 살펴보고, 남자 대학생의 섹슈얼리티를 유형화하는 것이다. 남자 대학생의 섹슈얼리티를 분석한 결과 개방코딩에서 142개의 개념과 48개의 하위범주, 24개의 상위범주를 도출했다. 패러다임 모형에서 남자 대학생의 섹슈얼리티의 중심현상은 ‘이중적 성규범에 기반 한 성경험’이었으며, 인과적 조건은 성적 호기심과 성적 욕구, 남성집단 내 인정욕구였다. 이중적 성규범에 영향을 미치는 맥락적 조건에는 야동 보기, 자위하기, 남학교 및 군대 성문화가 포함되었고, 중재적 조건에는 성교육의 부족이 포함되었으며, 작용/상호작용 전략에는 대학 성교육 수강, 현실적이고 진정한 사랑, 성적자기결정권이 포함되었다. 그 결과 올바른 성인식과 이성관계의 변화가 나타났다. 선택코딩에서 남자 대학생들의 섹슈얼리티는 ‘통합적 유형’, ‘성찰적 유형’, ‘혼란 유형’, ‘현실타협적 유형’, ‘강화 유형’으로 나타났다.

Reporting on young people, sexuality, and social media: a discourse theoretical analysis

ABSTRACTThe amount of public interest in and media panic over youth, sexuality, and social media has grown in recent years. In this paper, we explore the discursive practices that are disciplining the digital intimacies of young people through print media discourses. Therefore, we use a Foucauldian feminist approach and conduct a discourse theoretical analysis of 183 news articles published in Northern Belgium between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2016. Our findings show that the discourse in newspapers reporting on youth, sexuality, and social media consists of three recurring discursive practices. First, there is the problematization of social media. Second, this problematization is legitimized by the use of authoritative voices, such as those of academics or other experts. Third, this results in a gendered categorization where young girls are extensively included in the debate and young boys and their digital experiences are most often excluded. This gendered discourse not only perpetuates sexual double standards throughout society but also implicitly disciplines young people to adhere to hetero-patriarchal ideals of femininity and masculinity.

The Sexual Double Standard in the Real World

Abstract. The sexual double standard (SDS) has traditionally been studied by examining evaluations of hypothetical targets. Although much knowledge has been gained regarding the SDS by using this methodology, the literature thus far has suffered from a lack of ecological validity. The goal of the present study was to determine whether the SDS emerged in evaluations of participants’ real-life friends and acquaintances. Participants ( n = 4,455) evaluated a single, randomly assigned male or female friend or acquaintance whose sexual history they were familiar with. Women were evaluated more negatively as their number of sexual partners increased, whereas number of partners was not related to evaluations of men. The SDS was not moderated by the closeness of the relationship between the participant and the target person.

"Making room in Heaven for all sorts of souls": Temperance Rhetoric and Maggie: A Girl of the Streets"

"Making room in Heaven for all sorts of souls":Temperance Rhetoric and Maggie: A Girl of the Streets" Robin Jeremy Land (bio) In Stephen Crane'S Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, alcohol, violence, and the promise of violence is in every part of Maggie's home and neighborhood. Immediately after her older brother Jimmie fights with other wayward youth in the ominous Rum Alley, the boy's father finds him in the street, kicks him, and drags him home to his mother, who is an equally violent drunk. The following domestic disturbance in the Johnson home is filled with violent imagery as husband and wife fight with one another; Jimmie threatens his sister, and the mother severely beats Jimmie for his street fighting. Even the infant Tommie goes to sleep "with his fists doubled,"1 implying the stress he is under and foreshadowing the violence that awaits him when he is older. This is far from a happy home, and, throughout the entire scene, alcohol fuels the violence and dysfunction. Alcoholism and intemperance permeate every aspect of the titular Maggie's world. Alcohol is symbolically represented in the street names around her house; both her parents are constantly inebriated, her lover is a bartender, and even her final sexual partner is apparently drunk. Alcohol and its impact is an inescapable part of the characters' environment, and this environment and its influence on a person's life was one of Crane's more pressing concerns when he penned Maggie. In 1893 when Stephen Crane wrote to his friend and fellow author Hamlin Garland about Maggie,2 he enclosed the now famous description of his intent "to show that environment is a tremendous thing in the world and frequently shapes lives regardless,"3 and his hope was that Maggie would persuade his audience to make "room in heaven for all sorts of souls . . . who are not confidently expected to be there by many excellent people."4 Crane intended Maggie to convince his audience that the lives of the working poor in New York's Bowery district were greatly influenced by the world they inhabited, and that middle-class readers should reconsider some of the value judgments they impose on the working poor. For many readers the most obvious environmental factors contributing to Maggie's tragedy are the sexual double standards between men and women and the decay of middle-class morality in the slums. My study of Maggie does not disagree with those arguments that focus on [End Page 60] the novel's discussion of gender roles, the moral failings of New York's Bowery district, or those works that place the novel in the slum literature tradition. Instead my intent is to expand on the critical understanding of the novel's structure by examining a second narrative structure that lies beneath the already well-established slum narrative. While Maggie contorts the established slum narrative and the story of a fallen women, it also builds on the other well-known temperance narrative to reflect the lives of women living in New York's slums and ultimately challenge middle-class conceptions of the working poor by subverting a rhetorical strategy largely developed by middle-class temperance workers. These narratives, adopted by the Women's Christian Temperance Union and other temperance workers, were a combination of fictional and nonfictional accounts of alcoholism and its impact on families. Although ostensibly these were works of fiction, these narratives employed a common set of rhetorical practices designed to influence their audience's behavior, practices which Crane manipulated in order to challenge his middle-class audience's understanding of the working poor and in doing so, reworked the temperance narrative into naturalist novel. In effect, Maggie upturns middle-class expectations of the temperance narrative by repositioning alcohol and its abuse as an environmental factor contributing to Maggie's destruction, thus removing the sentimentalism so closely associated with traditional temperance narratives while still maintaining a strong sense of sympathy for Maggie that could encourage middle-class audiences to reconsider their opinion of women living in poverty. The temperance narrative was a well-known part of the American temperance movement by the end of the nineteenth...

“Who Does Not Dare, Is a Pussy.” A Textual Analysis of Media Panics, Youth, and Sexting in Print Media

The social media use of young people has become a site of increasing public interest. Young people experiencing with sexuality and intimacy in digital media spaces, has evoked public debates on youth, sexuality and social media. Sexting in particular, has often been covered in print media articles as a ‘risky’ youth phenomenon, leading to media panics about the alleged risks of social media. Although the social media use of young people has been studied in previous research, there remains a need to understand the broader cultural discourses on youth, sexuality and social media in print media. With this article, we examine the discourses in news stories covering sexting. The qualitative research design of this paper exists of a textual analysis of print media articles. Our findings show that public discourses in newspapers and magazines mainly articulate youth sexting as a deviant behavior. This deviance discourse is strongly linked to a gendered representation of youth who engage in sexting, resulting in a victimization of girls and criminalization of boys. The article concludes that the binary discourse in print media may not only reinforce sexual double standards, but also leaves little space for a more diverse and active comprehension of sexting.

"Men Cannot Be Raped": Correlates of Male Rape Myth Acceptance.

Despite the increased attention surrounding rape and sexual assault, research on male victims remains limited, particularly concerning the adherence to rape myths. Rape myths, which are false beliefs that are widely accepted, contribute to the justification and normalization of sexual violence by offenders and focus on the actions and behavior of victims while minimizing the harm. Addressing the gaps in the research, the present study examines how demographics, personal experiences with rape (i.e., being or knowing a survivor), and belief systems relate to rape myth adherence for male victims. The sample consisted of 1,220 adults in the United States who completed an online survey via Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). The number of myths endorsed ranged from 0 to 21 with a mean of 4.1 (SD = 4.7). In the final model of the hierarchical regression, results indicate rape myth acceptance was positively associated with individuals who were male, older, and more likely to believe males falsely report rapes to law enforcement at a high rate. Of the gender and sexuality attitudinal scales, individuals who adhered to female rape myths, held negative attitudes toward homosexuals, accepted traditional sexual double standards, and believed in traditional social gender roles were more likely to adhere to male rape myths. Findings demonstrate that rape myths operate similarly for male and female victims. Sexual assault programming and interventions need to address that males can be victims of sexual violence and the myths associated with male victimization in addition to generally challenging the adverse belief systems that serve as the foundation for rape myths generally.

Sexual Double Standards in White and Asian Americans: Ethnicity, Gender, and Acculturation

This study compares attitudes of sexual double standards (beliefs that grant more sexual freedom to men than to women) in White and Asian Americans. 506 heterosexual participants living in the U.S. (334 Whites and 172 Asians aged 18–45) answered questions assessing their attitudes towards men and women displaying various liberal sexual behaviors. Asian participants also indicated their levels of American acculturation and Asian cultural affiliation. The study found significant evidence of sexual double standards in both Whites and Asians, with certain ethnically different patterns. Whites and Asians did not differ significantly in their levels of sexual double standards when it concerned casual sexual and multiple sexual partners at the same time. However, Asians expressed stronger support for double standards than Whites when evaluating people for taking the initiative in sex and for having a large accumulated number of sexual partners. In both ethnic groups, men demonstrated stronger double standards than did women. Both Whites and Asians, regardless of gender, reported more conservative sexual attitudes for choosing marriage partners than in judging people in general. In the case of Asians, American acculturation and Asian cultural affiliation had limited and gender-specific effects on endorsement of sexual double standards. This study not only addresses an important gap in the sexual double standards literature but also brings new insights to the general discussion of ethnic differences in sexual attitudes.

Keeping It in “the Family”: How Gender Norms Shape U.S. Marriage Migration Politics

Foreign nationals who marry U.S. citizens have an expedited track to naturalization. U.S. immigration officials require that “green card” petitioning couples demonstrate that their relationships are “valid and subsisting” (i.e., for love) and not fraudulent (i.e., for immigration papers). These requirements are ostensibly gender and racially neutral, but migration itself is not; men and women petitioners seek partners in different regions and solicit advice from similar others about the potential obstacles to their petitions’ success. Using an online ethnography and textual analysis of conversation threads on a large online immigration forum where U.S. petitioners exchange such information, I examine how gendered standards of legitimacy are applied to family and sexuality and used discursively among petitioners to achieve genuineness and define red flags indicating potential marriage fraud. I argue that forum members police immigration requests even before cases reach an immigration officer. Petitioners use the formal criteria of U.S. immigration in ways that reveal gender ideologies, expectations for conformity to a gendered hegemonic family ideal, and sexual double standards surrounding sexual agency, fertility, and desirability. These intersectional norms shape members’ online discussions about the suitability of marriages and of the migration of noncitizen partners to the United States.

Humhandara and hujaya: Virginity, Culture, and Gender Inequalities Among Adolescents in Zimbabwe

Given the significance of gender and cultural norms in producing meanings about sexuality, we address the ways in which rural adolescents in Zimbabwe, aged between 16 and 19 years old, give meaning to virginity and the social processes through which it is produced. We are interested in the ways in which cultural norms are produced and ways in which sexual double standards operate in producing sexuality and girls’ subordination. We argue that while adolescents are not simply dupes of cultural norms, they actively invest in and use virginity as a marker of status. Integral to adolescent experience of and ideals around virginity, there is a significant ambivalence where girls’ virginity is expected, whereas the same is unexpected for young adolescent men. We show that conformity with, rather than resistance to, cultural norms may contradictorily and simultaneously subordinate and empower young women. Choosing to maintain virginity can be seen as an autonomous decision especially when girls position educational aspirations as key to virginity status in order to gain some control over their lives. However, this choice might not simply be about autonomy but occurs in a cultural context where patriarchal values had already made it an obligation. Dominant discourses around virginity and cultural norms stand in direct contradiction to adolescent sexual well-being, albeit with contradictions. Attention to cultural processes through which relations of power are manifest is important in safeguarding young people’s sexual health especially in the context of HIV.

The Madonna-Whore Dichotomy: Men Who Perceive Women's Nurturance and Sexuality as Mutually Exclusive Endorse Patriarchy and Show Lower Relationship Satisfaction

The Madonna-Whore Dichotomy (MWD) denotes polarized perceptions of women in general as either “good,” chaste, and pure Madonnas or as “bad,” promiscuous, and seductive whores. Whereas prior theories focused on unresolved sexual complexes or evolved psychological tendencies, feminist theory suggests the MWD stems from a desire to reinforce patriarchy. Surveying 108 heterosexual Israeli men revealed a positive association between MWD endorsement and patriarchy-enhancing ideology as assessed by Social Dominance Orientation (preference for hierarchical social structures), Gender-Specific System Justification (desire to maintain the existing gender system), and sexist attitudes (Benevolent and Hostile Sexism, Sexual Objectification of Women, and Sexual Double Standards). In addition, MWD endorsement negatively predicted men’s romantic relationship satisfaction. These findings support the feminist notion that patriarchal arrangements have negative implications for the well-being of men as well as women. Specifically, the MWD not only links to attitudes that restrict women’s autonomy, but also impairs men’s most intimate relationships with women. Increased awareness of motives underlying the MWD and its psychological costs can help practice professionals (e.g., couple therapists), as well as the general public, to foster more satisfying heterosexual relationships.

‘Race’, Religion, Romance: Youth Striving for an Optimal Dating Experience

This paper discusses how social actors engage with the notion of race and religion in private spheres. It specifically shows how young people use religion to rationalise their dating preferences, and in so doing are inclined to heighten the existing ethno-racialboundaries. The interview excerpts used as examples in this paper are drawn from an ethnographic study that I conducted in Dar es Salaam and Mbeya from 2012-2015. In this paper I demonstrate that the common knowledge and personal experiences of secondary school students—with regards to norms and values of self and others—tend to influence their choice of dating partners, their everyday experiences of being in an intimate relationship, and their overall opinion of inter-racial marriages. Also, whereas closed groups such as the Balouch and South Asian communities advocate for racial endogamy and perpetuate sexual double standards, teenagers from these groups use religion as a tool to manipulate given community norms and values.

Exploring Heterosexual Adults’ Endorsement of the Sexual Double Standard among Initiators of Consensually Nonmonogamous Relationship Behaviors

Although the traditional sexual double standard (SDS) has been well documented, recent research has produced inconsistencies. Some scholars argue that the SDS may only exist for less traditional sexual behaviors, reflecting society’s progression toward equality. Thus, the current study examined the SDS when evaluating individuals initiating a variety of forms of consensual nonmonogamy (CNM; i.e., romantic relationships that are sexually and/or emotionally nonexclusive). Using a between-subject experimental paradigm, 793 heterosexual U.S. adults (338 men, 455 women) read one of eight vignettes depicting an individual initiating one of five behaviors with their romantic partner (polyamory, swinging, open relationships, group sex, role-playing) and subsequently judged the initiator using three judgments of interest (cognitive abilities, morality, and relationship satisfaction). The results indicated that women initiators were judged more favorably than were men initiators and that role-playing initiators were judged more favorably than were CNM initiators. Among CNM behaviors, those initiating swinging and group sex were judged more favorably than were those initiating polyamory and open relationships. These results are consistent with research highlighting inconsistencies in the SDS in contemporary society and demonstrate the endorsement of a relationship double standard. Implications regarding gender equality as well as the promotion of inclusive sexual education are discussed.

College Students' Sexual Consent Communication And Perceptions of Sexual Double Standards: A Qualitative Investigation.

Affirmative consent standards adopted by colleges and universities are meant to decrease miscommunication that may lead to sexual assault. However, they may not take into account sociocultural factors that influence consent. In particular, the role of gender norms needs to be better understood. In-depth interviews about college students' sexual activity, including sexual consent communication, were conducted with 17 female and 13 male students at a large southern university during the spring 2013 semester. The interview protocol and analyses were guided by Carspecken's critical qualitative methodology, which seeks to understand both participants' explicit statements and implied underlying meanings and values. Themes and subthemes were identified through inductive analyses. Two overarching themes emerged: Students perceived a sexual double standard, and males viewed obtaining sex as a conquest. Subthemes related to the first theme reflected endorsement of traditional views of women's sexuality (the notions that "good girls" do not have sex, that women should privilege men's sexual needs over their own and that women "owe" men sex once men have "worked" for it). Subthemes related to the second theme reflected males' beliefs that sex is a commodity that pits women and men against one another, and that women can be "convinced" to have sex if they initially refuse. College students' consent communication may be influenced by gender norms that challenge assumptions of affirmative consent standards. Cultural shifts in students' views of sexuality may be necessary for affirmative consent policies to be effective.

A Scale for the Assessment of Sexual Standards Among Youth: Psychometric Properties

The (hetero)sexual double standard (SDS), prescribing sexual modesty for girls and sexual prowess for boys, negatively affects sexual and mental health. Nevertheless, endorsement and enactment of the SDS is still common. In this study, we respond to recent calls for modernization in the field of sexual double standard research. We describe the development of the “Scale for the Assessment of Sexual Standards among Youth” (SASSY), as well as its psychometric properties. This instrument was designed to measure contemporary sexual double standard endorsement, defined as “the degree to which an individual’s attitude reflects a divergent set of expectations for boys and girls, in that boys are expected to be relatively more sexually active, assertive, and knowledgeable and girls are expected to be relatively more sexually reserved, passive, and inexperienced” among adolescents and emerging adults. In Study 1, a pool of 35 items was administered in a Dutch sample (N = 465, 54.8% female, age 16–20). A 20-item set formed a one-dimensional and internally consistent scale and was subsequently administered in a second Dutch sample. Study 2 (N = 818, 58.4% female, age 16–25) again assessed the 20-item set. After dropping one item, the 19-item SASSY proved to be one-dimensional and internally consistent, exhibiting good test–retest reliability, construct validity, and convergent validity. Finally, the instrument showed configural and metric measurement invariance across gender, age, education level, and sexual experience level, and configural, metric, and scalar measurement invariance across time. These studies confirmed the 19-item SASSY to be a reliable and valid new tool for the assessment of contemporary sexual double standard endorsement among adolescents and emerging adults.